# Financial Managers

US SOC code 11-3031. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/11-3031

Also called: CFO, Chief financial officer, VP finance, Vice president of finance, Finance director.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **841,710** US financial managers, with median pay of **$166,570** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the May 2025 count is the highest. The earliest figure here is [a Census count](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1904/dec/occupations.html) of **45,000** from 1900, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for financial managers: Cloud FP&A + AI-assisted close, 2018 to 2024.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 9.7% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=11-3031&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **42.6%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **32%** of work tasks in management occupations, this job's group, are exposed to automation by AI. Not a forecast of job losses. [Goldman Sachs, 2023](https://www.gspublishing.com/content/research/en/reports/2023/03/27/d64e052b-0f6e-45d7-967b-d7be35fabd16.pdf)

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Financial Managers employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1840
- Latest US employment: 841,710 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [6]
- Latest US median pay: $166,570 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [18]
- Outlook: +9.7% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [41]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **Canada** (NOC 10010)
  - Employment, 2020: 74,540. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [9]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021: number of persons with employment income in NOC 10010 Financial managers, Canada, reference year 2020. A recipients basis (anyone with employment income during the year), slightly broader than a point-in-time employed count. Statistics Canada Open Licence.
  - Median pay, 2020: C$101,000. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [22]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021 (Table 98-10-0586): median employment income for NOC 10010 Financial managers, Canada, reference year 2020, full-year full-time workers (the basis comparable to the US OEWS full-time median). Statistics Canada Open Licence.
- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 1131)
  - Employment, 2025: 430,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [10]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 1131 Financial managers and directors, United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £65,336. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [23]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 1131 Financial managers and directors, United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 1322)
  - Employment, 2025: 77,000. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey [11]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 1322 Finance Managers, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$151,008. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [24]. Annualised (x52) from A$2,904 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.

### All 31 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1900 | 45,000 | $1,500 (estimate) | Decennial Census 1900 (employment) [1]; Est., Cambridge University Press / HSUS (pay) [12] |
| 1940 | 125,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1940 [2] |
| 1956 | n/a | $8,500 (estimate) | Est., University of Missouri Libraries [13] |
| 1970 | 270,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1970 [3] |
| 1986 | n/a | $30,400 | BLS CPS 1986 [14] |
| 1988 | n/a | $32,800 | BLS CPS 1988 [15] |
| 1990 | 700,000 | $52,000 | BLS CPS 1992 [4] |
| 2000 | 622,890 | $67,020 | BLS OEWS 2000 [5] |
| 2003 | 521,750 | $77,300 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [6] |
| 2004 | 493,360 | $81,880 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [6] |
| 2005 | 471,950 | $86,280 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [6] |
| 2006 | 468,270 | $90,970 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [6] |
| 2007 | 484,390 | $95,310 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [6] |
| 2008 | 500,590 | $99,330 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [6] |
| 2009 | 495,180 | $101,190 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [6] |
| 2010 | 478,940 | $103,910 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [6] |
| 2011 | 477,690 | $107,160 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [6] |
| 2012 | 484,910 | $109,740 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [6] |
| 2013 | 499,320 | $112,700 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [6] |
| 2014 | 518,030 | $115,320 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [6] |
| 2015 | 531,120 | $117,990 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [6] |
| 2016 | 543,300 | $121,750 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [6] |
| 2017 | 569,380 | $125,080 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [6] |
| 2018 | 608,120 | $127,990 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [6] |
| 2019 | 654,790 | $129,890 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [6] |
| 2020 | 653,080 | $134,180 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [6] |
| 2021 | 681,070 | $131,710 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [6] |
| 2022 | 740,780 | $139,790 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [6] |
| 2023 | 787,340 | $156,100 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [6] |
| 2024 | 818,620 | $161,700 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [6] |
| 2025 | 841,710 | $166,570 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [6] |

## Sources (124)

### Employment series

1. [US Census Bureau — 1900 Census Special Reports: Occupations at the Twelfth Census (official tables)](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1904/dec/occupations.html), US Census Bureau
2. [IPUMS USA — Occupational Coding in 1940 Census: Managers, Officials, and Proprietors (financial industry subcategory)](https://usa.ipums.org/usa/volii/occ1940.shtml), IPUMS / University of Minnesota
3. [US Census Bureau — 1970 Census Occupation and Industry data (Managers and Administrators category)](https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/decennial-publications.1970.html), US Census Bureau
4. [BLS Historical Occupational Outlook Handbook reference (circa 1992 edition) — Financial Managers employment estimate](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/financial-managers.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
5. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
6. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
7. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
8. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
9. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
10. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1131, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
11. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), latest release](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

12. [Historical Statistics of the United States — wages and salaries in managerial occupations, circa 1900](https://hsus.cambridge.org/HSUSWeb/toc/tableToc.do?id=Ba4218-4224), Cambridge University Press / HSUS
13. [University of Missouri Libraries, "Prices and Wages by Decade: 1950-1959" (compiled historical administrative/managerial salary, ~1956)](https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1950-1959), University of Missouri Libraries (compiled historical wage estimate)
14. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook 1988-89: the median annual salary of financial managers was $30,400 in 1986; the lowest 10 percent earned $17,100 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $52,000. The salary level is likely to be higher in large institutions and cities.](https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/bls/bls_2300_1988.pdf), BLS-CPS
15. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook 1990-91: the median annual salary of financial managers was $32,800 in 1988; the lowest 10 percent earned $17,500 or less, while the top 10 percent earned over $52,000. Many financial managers in private industry also receive bonuses.](https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/files/docs/publications/bls/bls_2350_1990.pdf), BLS-CPS
16. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (circa 1992) — Financial Managers median salary estimate](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/financial-managers.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
17. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
18. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
19. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
20. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
21. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
22. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
23. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1131, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
24. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Finance Managers (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/1322-finance-managers), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

25. [Alfred D. Chandler Jr. — "The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business" (1977) — railroad management and financial accounting](https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674940529), Harvard University Press
26. [Wikipedia — Burroughs Corporation (mechanical adding machine history, 1888)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burroughs_Corporation), Wikipedia
27. [Wikipedia — Tabulating machine (Hollerith punched card, 1890)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabulating_machine), Wikipedia
28. [Wikipedia — IBM 1401 (computing history: best-selling mainframe of the early 1960s)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1401), Wikipedia
29. [Securities Exchange Act of 1934 — The Strategic CFO (regulatory history)](https://strategiccfo.com/articles/investment-shareholders/securities-exchange-act-of-1934/), The Strategic CFO
30. [The Evolution of the CFO Role — ROARK (CFO title origin at Dan River Mills, 1966; history of the role)](https://www.roarkfs.com/insights/evolution-of-chief-financial-officer-role), ROARK Financial Solutions
31. [The Birth of the CFO (A History) — David Stack, Medium (regulatory drivers: SEC ASR 190, FASB Statement 33)](https://medium.com/@DavidStack/the-birth-of-the-cfo-a-history-bcf9da0af27f), Medium / David Stack
32. [Wikipedia — SAP R/3 (enterprise resource planning history, 1992 release)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAP_S/4HANA), Wikipedia
33. [Evolution of the CFO Role — DigitalDefynd (ERP era and CFO scope expansion, 1990s)](https://digitaldefynd.com/IQ/evolution-of-the-cfo-role/), DigitalDefynd
34. [Sarbanes-Oxley CEO/CFO certification requirement — Ropes & Gray LLP (Section 302 personal liability analysis)](https://www.ropesgray.com/en/insights/alerts/2002/09/sec-issues-final-rules-applying-ceocfo-certification-requirement-to-registered-investment-companies), Ropes & Gray
35. [University of Phoenix — "What Is a CFO?" (SOX impact on CFO role evolution)](https://www.phoenix.edu/articles/business/what-is-a-cfo.html), University of Phoenix
36. [Workday — Adaptive Planning product overview (AI for FP&A, Planning Agent)](https://www.workday.com/en-us/products/adaptive-planning/overview.html), Workday
37. [Datarails — One in Three Finance Jobs Now Requires AI Skills (Mar 2026)](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-datarails-research-one-in-three-finance-jobs-now-requires-ai-skills-up-from-one-in-four-just-a-year-ago-302723202.html), PR Newswire / Datarails
38. [NBER/Duke/Fed Reserve — CFO Survey: 57% expect AI to reduce finance roles (Mar 2026)](https://techjacksolutions.com/ai-brief/nber-survey-of-750-cfos-projects-ai-driven-job-cuts-will-rea/), NBER / Duke / Federal Reserve
39. [BlackLine — Agentic Financial Operations: Verity AI suite press release (Apr 2026)](https://www.blackline.com/about/press-releases/2026/blackline-unveils-agentic-financial-operations-to-close-ais-governance-and-trust-gap/), BlackLine
40. [CFO Connect — State of AI in Finance 2026 (56% of finance professionals using AI)](https://www.cfoconnect.eu/resources/reports/state-of-ai-in-finance-2026/), CFO Connect

### Forecasts and exposure studies

41. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 11-3031 Financial managers (2025: 879.7 thousand; 2035: 964.6 thousand; +9.7%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=11-3031&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
42. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 11-3031.00, human-rated β 0.426)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI
43. [Briggs & Kodnani, "The Potentially Large Effects of Artificial Intelligence on Economic Growth", Goldman Sachs Global Economics Analyst (26 March 2023), Exhibit 5 (US): management 32%](https://www.gspublishing.com/content/research/en/reports/2023/03/27/d64e052b-0f6e-45d7-967b-d7be35fabd16.pdf), Goldman Sachs Global Investment Research

### Historical notes

44. [Alfred D. Chandler Jr. — "The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business" (Pennsylvania Railroad financial hierarchy)](https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674940529), Harvard University Press
45. [Securities Exchange Act of 1934 — The Strategic CFO (regulatory history and impact on financial management)](https://strategiccfo.com/articles/investment-shareholders/securities-exchange-act-of-1934/), The Strategic CFO
46. [The Evolution of the CFO Role: A Brief History — ROARK (Dan River Mills, 1966, first CFO title)](https://www.roarkfs.com/insights/evolution-of-chief-financial-officer-role), ROARK Financial Solutions
47. [The Birth of the CFO — David Stack, Medium (SEC ASR 190, FASB Statement 33, inflation accounting, 1976-1979)](https://medium.com/@DavidStack/the-birth-of-the-cfo-a-history-bcf9da0af27f), Medium
48. [How CEOs, CFOs Can Avoid Criminal Exposure Under Sarbanes-Oxley Certification Provisions — Kirkland and Ellis LLP](https://www.kirkland.com/publications/article/2002/10/how-ceos-cfos-can-avoid-criminal-exposure-under-sa), Kirkland & Ellis LLP
49. [Wikipedia — 2008 financial crisis (Lehman Brothers collapse, regulatory aftermath)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis), Wikipedia
50. [Datarails — One in Three Finance Jobs Now Requires AI Skills; AI premium 56% (Mar 2026)](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-datarails-research-one-in-three-finance-jobs-now-requires-ai-skills-up-from-one-in-four-just-a-year-ago-302723202.html), PR Newswire / Datarails

### Predecessors & successors

51. [Alfred D. Chandler Jr. — "The Visible Hand" (railroad and industrial corporate financial hierarchy, 1840s-1900)](https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674940529), Harvard University Press
52. [Wikipedia — Certified Public Accountant (CPAs serve as finance managers, controllers, and CFOs in corporate roles)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Public_Accountant), Wikipedia

### Present-day analysis

- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
- [O\*NET 30.3 — Financial Managers (11-3031.00)](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/11-3031.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Datarails — CFO's Office 2.0: 2026 AI Transformation report (primary research)](https://www.datarails.com/research/cfos-2026/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Datarails — One in Three Finance Jobs Now Requires AI Skills (Mar 2026)](https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-datarails-research-one-in-three-finance-jobs-now-requires-ai-skills-up-from-one-in-four-just-a-year-ago-302723202.html), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BCG — The CFO's AI Agenda: From Automation to Advantage (2026)](https://www.bcg.com/publications/2026/the-cfos-ai-agenda-from-automation-to-advantage), accessed 2026-05-23
- [CFO Connect — State of AI in Finance 2026 (56% of finance professionals now use AI)](https://www.cfoconnect.eu/resources/reports/state-of-ai-in-finance-2026/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BlackLine — Agentic Financial Operations + Verity AI suite press release (Apr 2026)](https://www.blackline.com/about/press-releases/2026/blackline-unveils-agentic-financial-operations-to-close-ais-governance-and-trust-gap/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [HighRadius — Autonomous Finance for the CFO's Office (2026 Benchmark Report)](https://www.highradius.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Fortune — AI in 2026: CFOs predict transformation, not just efficiency gains (Dec 2025)](https://fortune.com/2025/12/24/ai-in-2026-cfos-predict-transformation-not-just-efficiency-gains/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [NBER/Duke/Fed Reserve — CFO Survey: 57% expect AI to reduce finance roles (Mar 2026)](https://techjacksolutions.com/ai-brief/nber-survey-of-750-cfos-projects-ai-driven-job-cuts-will-rea/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Microsoft — Copilot for Finance in Microsoft 365 generally available (Oct 2025)](https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/dynamics-365/blog/it-professional/2025/10/20/empowering-finance-with-an-ai-assistant-in-microsoft-365-copilot/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [CFO.com — 79% of FP&A teams are using AI, but mostly to enhance operations (2026)](https://www.cfo.com/news/79-of-fpa-teams-are-using-ai-but-mostly-to-enhance-operations/759924/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [HighRadius — 5 Ways Agentic AI Transforms Accounts Receivable (2026)](https://www.highradius.com/resources/Blog/5-ways-agentic-ai-can-transform-accounts-receivable-management/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BlackLine — Financial Close Management Software (Verity Prepare: 90% reconciliation time reduction)](https://www.blackline.com/products/financial-close/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Workday — AI for FP&A: Planning Agent variance analysis, scenario modeling (2026)](https://www.workday.com/en-us/products/adaptive-planning/ai-for-fpa.html), accessed 2026-05-23

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.