# Medical and Health Services Managers

US SOC code 11-9111. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/11-9111

Also called: Healthcare administrator, Hospital administrator, Practice manager, Medical practice manager, Clinic manager.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **597,080** US medical and health services managers, with median pay of **$123,860** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the May 2025 count is the highest. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/hospital-administration-history-and-career-opportunities) of **6,600** from 1935, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for medical and health services managers: MACRA/MIPS + value-based care analytics + ACO management platforms, 2017 to 2023.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 24.2% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=11-9111&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **37.1%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.0073** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.0073. BLS counted **300,180** of these jobs in May 2013 and **597,080** in May 2025 (+99%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Medical and Health Services Managers employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1899
- Latest US employment: 597,080 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [5]
- Latest US median pay: $123,860 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [16]
- Outlook: +24.2% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [43]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **Canada** (NOC 30010)
  - Employment, 2020: 37,340. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [8]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021: number of persons with employment income in NOC 30010 Managers in health care, Canada, reference year 2020. A recipients basis (anyone with employment income during the year), slightly broader than a point-in-time employed count. Statistics Canada Open Licence.
  - Median pay, 2020: C$104,000. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [21]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021 (Table 98-10-0586): median employment income for NOC 30010 Managers in health care, Canada, reference year 2020, full-year full-time workers (the basis comparable to the US OEWS full-time median). Statistics Canada Open Licence.
- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 1171)
  - Employment, 2025: 64,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [11]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 1171 Health services and public health managers and directors, United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £55,879. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [24]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 1171 Health services and public health managers and directors, United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 1342)
  - Employment, 2025: 55,800. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey [12]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 1342 Health and Welfare Services Managers, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$141,440. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [25]. Annualised (x52) from A$2,720 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.

### All 29 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1935 | 6,600 (estimate) | n/a | Est., American Hospital Association [1] |
| 1946 | 9,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [2] |
| 1960 | n/a | $8,400 (estimate) | Est., GWU Healthcare Administration History [13] |
| 1969 | 72,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Woolhandler & Himmelstein (1991) [3] |
| 1988 | n/a | $30,524 | BLS CPS 1988 [14] |
| 1999 | 227,000 (estimate) | $46,113 | Est., Woolhandler & Himmelstein (1991) (employment) [4]; Census 2000 (pay) [15] |
| 2003 | 226,160 | $64,550 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [5] |
| 2004 | 224,070 | $67,430 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [5] |
| 2005 | 230,130 | $69,700 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [5] |
| 2006 | 232,920 | $73,340 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [5] |
| 2007 | 242,640 | $76,990 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [5] |
| 2008 | 258,130 | $80,240 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [5] |
| 2009 | 271,710 | $81,850 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [5] |
| 2010 | 282,990 | $84,270 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [5] |
| 2011 | 287,560 | $86,400 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [5] |
| 2012 | 293,490 | $88,580 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [5] |
| 2013 | 300,180 | $90,940 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [5] |
| 2014 | 310,320 | $92,810 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [5] |
| 2015 | 314,950 | $94,500 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [5] |
| 2016 | 332,150 | $96,540 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [5] |
| 2017 | 346,980 | $98,350 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [5] |
| 2018 | 372,670 | $99,730 | BLS OEWS May 2018 (employment) [5]; BLS OEWS May 2018 (pay) [17] |
| 2019 | 394,910 | $100,980 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [5] |
| 2020 | 402,540 | $104,280 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [5] |
| 2021 | 436,770 | $101,340 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [5] |
| 2022 | 476,750 | $104,830 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [5] |
| 2023 | 515,100 | $110,680 | BLS OEWS May 2023 (employment) [5]; BLS OEWS 2023 (pay) [17] |
| 2024 | 565,840 | $117,960 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [5] |
| 2025 | 597,080 | $123,860 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [5] |

## Sources (120)

### Employment series

1. [American Hospital Association — "The History of Hospital Administration" (cited through ACHE and GWU Healthcare Administration History)](https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/hospital-administration-history-and-career-opportunities), American Hospital Association / GWU
2. [Wikipedia — Hill–Burton Act: funded 10,748 construction projects; half million beds; $3.7B federal + $9.1B matching funds (1947-1971)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Burton_Act), Wikipedia / Hill-Burton Act
3. [Woolhandler & Himmelstein (1991) — "The Deteriorating Administrative Efficiency of the U.S. Health Care System" (NEJM vol. 324, no. 18)](https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199105023241805), New England Journal of Medicine
4. [Woolhandler & Himmelstein (1991) — "The Deteriorating Administrative Efficiency of the U.S. Health Care System" (NEJM); PNHP secondary summary of 1969–1999 administrative workforce trend](https://pnhp.org/news/administrative-burden-on-u-s-physicians/), Physicians for a National Health Program / NEJM
5. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
6. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
7. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
8. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
9. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1181, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
10. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1171, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
11. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1171, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
12. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), latest release](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

13. [GWU Healthcare Administration History — hospital administrator salary context 1950s-1960s; AHA hospital statistics secondary reference (estimate: ~$8,000-$9,000 median annual for general-hospital administrator circa early 1960s)](https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/hospital-administration-history-and-career-opportunities), George Washington University / AHA
14. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook 1990-91: median earnings for all health service managers were $30,524 in 1988; the middle 50 percent earned between $22,516 and $41,080.](https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/occupational-outlook-handbook-3964/occupational-outlook-handbook-1990-91-edition-583132/fulltext), BLS-CPS
15. [U.S. Census 2000, Earnings by Detailed Occupation (Table 2): Medical and Health Services Managers, year-round full-time median earnings $46,113 for 1999.](https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/tables/2000/earnings-occupation/call2usboth.csv), CENSUS
16. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
17. [BLS OEWS May 2018 — 11-9111 Medical and Health Services Managers: median annual wage $99,730](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/medical-and-health-services-managers.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
18. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
19. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
20. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
21. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
22. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1181, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
23. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1171, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
24. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 1171, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
25. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Health and Welfare Services Managers (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/1342-health-and-welfare-services-managers), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

26. [GWU Healthcare Administration History — origin and early tools of hospital superintendent role](https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/hospital-administration-history-and-career-opportunities), George Washington University
27. [AHA — "The Association of Hospital Superintendents is founded" (September 12, 1899, Cleveland)](https://www.aha.org/node/2805), American Hospital Association
28. [Wikipedia — Hill-Burton Act: 10,748 construction projects, $3.7B federal + $9.1B matching funds, ~half million beds (1947-1971)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Burton_Act), Wikipedia
29. [PATIMES — "The Hill-Burton Act of 1946: America's First Health Policy"](https://patimes.org/the-hill-burton-act-of-1946-americas-first-health-policy/), PA Times / ASPA
30. [US National Archives — "Medicare and Medicaid Act (1965)"](https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/medicare-and-medicaid-act), US National Archives
31. [PNHP — "Administrative burden on US physicians" (citing Woolhandler & Himmelstein NEJM 1991 and 2003 update: administrative share grew from 18.1% to 27.3% of medical workforce, 1969-1999)](https://pnhp.org/news/administrative-burden-on-u-s-physicians/), Physicians for a National Health Program
32. [PMC — "Impact of the Medicare prospective payment system for hospitals" (PMC4191526)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4191526/), PMC / Health Care Financing Review
33. [Moss Adams — "FAQ on Medicare Severity Diagnostic Related Groups and Their Impact on Reimbursement" (2026)](https://www.bakertilly.com/insights/faq-on-medicare-severity-diagnostic-related-groups), Moss Adams
34. [HHS — HIPAA for Professionals: Administrative Simplification, Privacy Rule (2003), Security Rule (2005)](https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/index.html), US Department of Health and Human Services
35. [PMC — "Documentation Burden in Nursing and Its Role in Clinician Burnout Syndrome" (PMC9581587): HITECH-era EHR adoption reached 97% of acute-care hospitals by 2014; documentation as primary burnout driver](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9581587/), PMC / Nursing Research
36. [CMS — EHR Incentive Programs (Meaningful Use): $27B program driving hospital EHR adoption 2011-2016](https://www.cms.gov/medicare/regulations-guidance/promoting-interoperability-programs), CMS
37. [CMS — Medicare Shared Savings Program: ACO groups coordinating high-quality care for Medicare; performance payments for ACOs that reduce costs](https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Medicare-Fee-for-Service-Payment/sharedsavingsprogram), CMS / Medicare
38. [CMS — MACRA / MIPS: Merit-based Incentive Payment System and Alternative Payment Models; quality, cost, and interoperability reporting requirements](https://www.cms.gov/Medicare/Quality-Initiatives-Patient-Assessment-Instruments/Value-Based-Programs/MACRA-MIPS-and-APMs/MACRA-MIPS-and-APMs), CMS
39. [Health Affairs Forefront — "COVID-19's Impact On Nursing Shortages, The Rise Of Travel Nurses, And Price Gouging" (2022)](https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20220125.695159/), Health Affairs
40. [AHA Center for Health Innovation — pandemic crisis management resources; telehealth waiver impact on care delivery scale (2020)](https://www.aha.org/center), American Hospital Association
41. [Epic Health Research Network — Cosmos AI Insights GA October 2025: 305M patient records; AI-powered quality benchmarking](https://www.epic.com/software/cosmos/), Epic Systems
42. [HIMSS 2026 State of the Industry — 62% of CMOs/COOs now personally co-own AI deployment decisions](https://www.himss.org/resources/himss-future-health-report), HIMSS

### Forecasts and exposure studies

43. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 11-9111 Medical and health services managers (2025: 640.4 thousand; 2035: 795.5 thousand; +24.2%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=11-9111&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
44. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 11-9111 Medical and Health Services Managers: probability 0.0073, rank 36 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
45. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 11-9111.00, human-rated β 0.371)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

46. [AHA — "The Association of Hospital Superintendents is founded" (September 12, 1899)](https://www.aha.org/node/2805), American Hospital Association
47. [ACHE — Our Story: founded 1933 as American College of Hospital Administrators; renamed American College of Healthcare Executives in 1985](https://www.ache.org/about-ache/our-story), American College of Healthcare Executives
48. [GPHAP — University of Chicago: "History" — Program in Hospital Administration founded 1934 by Michael M. Davis, first graduate health administration program in the world](https://gphap.uchicago.edu/history/), University of Chicago GPHAP
49. [Wikipedia — Hill-Burton Act: 10,748 projects; ~half million beds; $3.7B federal + $9.1B matching; 1947-1971](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill%E2%80%93Burton_Act), Wikipedia
50. [US National Archives — "Medicare and Medicaid Act (1965)"](https://www.archives.gov/milestone-documents/medicare-and-medicaid-act), US National Archives
51. [PMC — "Impact of the Medicare Prospective Payment System for Hospitals" (PMC4191526)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4191526/), PMC / Health Care Financing Review
52. [PNHP — "Administrative burden on US physicians" (citing NEJM 1991, updated 2003: administrative workforce grew from 18.1% to 27.3% of medical workforce, 1969-1999)](https://pnhp.org/news/administrative-burden-on-u-s-physicians/), Physicians for a National Health Program
53. [CMS — Promoting Interoperability Programs (EHR Incentive Programs): HITECH $27B program; Meaningful Use attestation requirements; 97% hospital EHR adoption by 2014](https://www.cms.gov/medicare/regulations-guidance/promoting-interoperability-programs), CMS
54. [AHA — COVID-19 resources and pandemic management guidance for hospital administrators (2020)](https://www.aha.org/center), American Hospital Association
55. [BLS OOH — Medical and Health Services Managers: +29% projected 2023-2033; fastest-growing major management occupation (consistent with AI augmenting rather than replacing the role)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/medical-and-health-services-managers.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Predecessors & successors

56. [GWU Healthcare Administration History — hospital superintendent as precursor title to modern administrator](https://healthcaremba.gwu.edu/blog/hospital-administration-history-and-career-opportunities), George Washington University
57. [AHA Node 2805 — 1899 founding; note that in 1916 over half of AHA member-superintendents were nurses, reflecting the nurse-to-administrator pathway](https://www.aha.org/node/2805), American Hospital Association
58. [ACHE — Our Story: ACHE credentials the hospital administrator-to-executive pipeline; Fellows program as CEO pipeline signal](https://www.ache.org/about-ache/our-story), American College of Healthcare Executives

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Medical and Health Services Managers (11-9111.00): tasks, technology skills, wages, employment](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/11-9111.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BLS OOH — Medical and Health Services Managers: 509,500 employed 2024; +29% growth 2024-2034; 60,000 annual openings; median $110,680](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/medical-and-health-services-managers.htm), accessed 2026-05-23
- [HIMSS 2026 State of the Industry — 62% of CMOs/COOs now co-own AI deployment decisions; AI governance accountability shifting to non-IT executives](https://www.himss.org/resources/himss-future-health-report), accessed 2026-05-23
- [HFMA Revenue Cycle AI Adoption Report 2026 — 71% of CFOs report AI in revenue cycle; health systems using AI improve net collection rates 3-5 percentage points](https://www.hfma.org/revenue-cycle/the-revenue-cycle-of-the-future-ai-boom-and-workflow-redesigns-accelerate-rev-cycle-transformation/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [McKinsey — Transforming Healthcare with Generative AI: health system operations as primary AI value zone (April 2025)](https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/healthcare/our-insights/transforming-healthcare-with-generative-ai), accessed 2026-05-23
- [McKinsey — A New Era for Healthcare Operations: AI-enabled throughput, scheduling, and administrative automation (June 2025)](https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/healthcare/our-insights/a-new-era-for-healthcare-operations), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science): occupational LLM exposure framework](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Oracle Health Clinical AI Agent — AI-assisted patient flow, scheduling, and administrative automation; ambient clinical documentation and workflow automation](https://www.oracle.com/health/clinical-suite/clinical-ai-agent/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Innovaccer Health AI Platform — AI-driven population health and care-gap analytics deployed across 60+ health systems; unified patient data + outreach automation (2025)](https://innovaccer.com/solutions/population-health), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Hippocratic AI — agentic population health outreach: automated chronic disease management and preventive care gap calls; 180M+ patient interactions; deployed at health systems (2025)](https://hippocraticai.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [AKASA Auth Status — AI prior-authorization workflow: automated auth status checks reducing auth work queue volume, 2025 vendor documentation](https://akasa.com/solutions/auth-status/), accessed 2026-05-23

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.