# Chemists

US SOC code 19-2031. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/19-2031

Also called: Research chemist, Analytical chemist, Organic chemist, Synthetic chemist, Medicinal chemist.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **82,770** US chemists, with median pay of **$91,240** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the highest was **87,560**, in May 2013. The earliest figure here is [a Census count](https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-occupation/00312147ch2.pdf) of **9,000** from 1900, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for chemists: Electronic lab notebooks, 2015 to 2022.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 6.4% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-2031&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **40%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.1** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.1. BLS counted **87,560** of these jobs in May 2013 and **82,770** in May 2025 (-5%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Chemists employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1720
- Latest US employment: 82,770 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [6]
- Latest US median pay: $91,240 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [13]
- Outlook: +6.4% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [35]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **Canada** (NOC 21101)
  - Employment, 2020: 16,325. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [9]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021: number of persons with employment income in NOC 21101 Chemists, Canada, reference year 2020. A recipients basis (anyone with employment income during the year), slightly broader than a point-in-time employed count. Statistics Canada Open Licence.
  - Median pay, 2020: C$72,500. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [17]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021 (Table 98-10-0586): median employment income for NOC 21101 Chemists, Canada, reference year 2020, full-year full-time workers (the basis comparable to the US OEWS full-time median). Statistics Canada Open Licence.

### All 30 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1900 | 9,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1940 [1] |
| 1920 | 28,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1920 [2] |
| 1950 | 69,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1950 [3] |
| 1960 | n/a | $8,200 (estimate) | Est., University of Missouri Libraries [10] |
| 1980 | 87,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., BLS Monthly Labor Review [4] |
| 1982 | n/a | $31,000 | BLS historical bulletin 1982 [11] |
| 2000 | 82,320 | $50,080 | BLS OEWS 2000 [5] |
| 2003 | 82,600 | $53,650 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [6] |
| 2004 | 79,650 | $56,060 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [6] |
| 2005 | 76,540 | $57,890 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [6] |
| 2006 | 80,500 | $59,870 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [6] |
| 2007 | 79,860 | $63,490 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [6] |
| 2008 | 83,080 | $66,230 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [6] |
| 2009 | 79,910 | $68,220 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [6] |
| 2010 | 80,180 | $68,320 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [6] |
| 2011 | 80,040 | $69,760 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [6] |
| 2012 | 84,950 | $71,770 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [6] |
| 2013 | 87,560 | $72,350 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [6] |
| 2014 | 85,970 | $73,480 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [6] |
| 2015 | 84,720 | $71,260 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [6] |
| 2016 | 86,660 | $73,740 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [6] |
| 2017 | 84,400 | $74,740 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [6] |
| 2018 | 84,560 | $76,890 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [6] |
| 2019 | 83,530 | $77,630 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [6] |
| 2020 | 82,940 | $79,300 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [6] |
| 2021 | 80,600 | $79,430 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [6] |
| 2022 | 83,940 | $80,670 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [6] |
| 2023 | 83,530 | $84,680 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [6] |
| 2024 | 83,250 | $84,150 | BLS OEWS May 2024 (employment) [6]; BLS OEWS May 2024 (pay) [14] |
| 2025 | 82,770 | $91,240 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [6] |

## Sources (108)

### Employment series

1. [US Census Bureau -- Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870-1930 (1940 volume, Part II, chemists and assayers historical series)](https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-occupation/00312147ch2.pdf), US Census Bureau
2. [1920 Census of Population, occupation statistics (chemists); Comparative Occupation Statistics for the United States, 1870 to 1940](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1943/dec/population-occupation.html), U.S. Census Bureau
3. [1950 Census of Population, Vol. II, occupation by industry (chemists)](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1953/dec/population-vol-02.html), U.S. Census Bureau
4. [BLS Monthly Labor Review -- occupational salary levels for white-collar workers 1982 (includes chemist workforce context)](https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1982/10/rpt2full.pdf), Bureau of Labor Statistics
5. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
6. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
7. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
8. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
9. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada

### Wage series

10. [University of Missouri Libraries -- Prices and Wages by Decade: 1960-1969 (BLS wage references for professional and technical workers)](https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1960-1969), University of Missouri Libraries / BLS historical sources
11. [BLS Monthly Labor Review -- Research Summaries: Occupational salary levels for white-collar workers, 1982](https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/1982/10/rpt2full.pdf), Bureau of Labor Statistics
12. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
13. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
14. [BLS OOH -- Chemists and Materials Scientists: median annual wage $84,150 (May 2024); 19-2031 Chemists](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/chemists-and-materials-scientists.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
15. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
16. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
17. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada

### Tool eras

18. [PMC -- The history of chemical laboratories: a thematic approach (furnace-centered laboratory design before 1820)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8218977/), PubMed Central / History of Chemistry
19. [Chemistry LibreTexts -- 1.2: History of Chemistry (Lavoisier, Boyle, and the transformation of alchemy into chemistry)](https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Chemistry/Introductory_Chemistry_%28CK-12%29/01:_Introduction_to_Chemistry/1.02:_History_of_Chemistry), Chemistry LibreTexts
20. [Compound Interest -- Today in Chemistry History: Robert Bunsen and the Bunsen burner (Bunsen-Desaga design, 1855; spectroscopy with Kirchhoff, 1859)](https://www.compoundchem.com/2023/03/31/bunsenburner/), Compound Interest / Chemistry History
21. [Science History Institute -- Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wohler (Liebig laboratory model and chemistry education)](https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/justus-von-liebig-and-friedrich-wohler/), Science History Institute
22. [EBSCO Research Starters -- Fraunhofer Invents the Spectroscope (history of spectroscopic analysis)](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/fraunhofer-invents-spectroscope), EBSCO / Research Starters
23. [ACS -- History of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry: GC-MS landmark, Dow Chemical 1955 invention, LKB commercial debut 1965](https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry.html), American Chemical Society
24. [Chrom Tech -- The Fascinating History of Gas Chromatography: Martin and James 1952 invention; FID detector 1958; Perkin-Elmer GC introduction](https://chromtech.com/blog/the-fascinating-history-of-gas-chromatography/), Chrom Tech
25. [ACS Publications -- The Rise of Instruments during World War II: analytical chemistry transformation, IR and UV-Vis spectrophotometers (Analytical Chemistry, 2008)](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ac801205u), ACS Publications / Analytical Chemistry
26. [PubMed Central -- The Role of Robotics in the Laboratory of the 80s: Zymark laboratory robotics for automated sample preparation and NMR workflows](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5181859/), PubMed Central / Journal of Automatic Chemistry
27. [The Analytical Scientist -- Top 10 Game Changers in HPLC History: autosampler development and computerized chromatography data systems](https://theanalyticalscientist.com/techniques-tools/the-top-10-game-changers-in-hplc-history), The Analytical Scientist
28. [Wikipedia -- Computational chemistry: Gaussian origins at Carnegie Mellon; DFT adoption 1990s; virtual screening emergence](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_chemistry), Wikipedia
29. [PubMed -- HyperChem: a software package for computational chemistry and molecular modeling (PubMed review, 1993)](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8333944/), PubMed / National Library of Medicine
30. [Benchling 2025 -- ELN platform: deployed at 70% of top-20 pharma; 21 CFR Part 11 compliant; AI-assisted synthesis planning and chemical structure annotation](https://www.benchling.com/), Benchling
31. [ACS Self-Driving Laboratories review -- automation of chemistry laboratories from high-throughput screening to robotic synthesis (Chemical Reviews, 2024)](https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.4c00055), ACS Publications / Chemical Reviews
32. [IBM Research -- RXN for Chemistry: AI retrosynthesis platform; greater than 90% top-3 accuracy on benchmark reaction sets; pharma R&D adoption (2024-2025)](https://rxn.app.accelerate.science/rxn/), IBM Research
33. [Nature (May 2024) -- AlphaFold 3: accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07487-w?error=cookies_not_supported&code=2b360610-e108-4e12-afbe-e1c471dacd39), Nature / DeepMind
34. [BLS OOH -- Chemists and Materials Scientists: +5% growth 2024-2034; pharma, nanotechnology, and battery materials as demand drivers](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/chemists-and-materials-scientists.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Forecasts and exposure studies

35. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 19-2031 Chemists (2025: 84.9 thousand; 2035: 90.3 thousand; +6.4%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-2031&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
36. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 19-2031 Chemists: probability 0.1, rank 173 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
37. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 19-2031.00, human-rated β 0.4)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

38. [ACS -- John W. Draper and the Founding of the American Chemical Society (ACS landmark)](https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/draperacs.html), American Chemical Society
39. [American Affairs Journal -- The US Synthetic Rubber Program: An Industrial Policy Triumph during World War II (context includes WWI chemical industry mobilization)](https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2025/02/the-u-s-synthetic-rubber-program-an-industrial-policy-triumph-during-world-war-ii/), American Affairs Journal
40. [PMC -- Rethinking Antibiotic Research and Development: World War II and the Penicillin Collaborative (at least 1,000 chemists involved)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3673487/), PubMed Central / American Journal of Public Health
41. [Chrom Tech -- The Fascinating History of Gas Chromatography: Nobel Prize 1952; FID 1958; GC-MS 1965](https://chromtech.com/blog/the-fascinating-history-of-gas-chromatography/), Chrom Tech
42. [ACS -- ACS Members Then and Now: ChemCensus 2015 (historical survey data, including 1985 baseline of 42,613 completions)](https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/careers/salaries/cen_chemcensus_2015.pdf), American Chemical Society
43. [Federal Register -- USPTO: Inventorship Guidance for AI-Assisted Inventions (Director Vidal, February 13, 2024)](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/02/13/2024-02623/inventorship-guidance-for-ai-assisted-inventions), USPTO / Federal Register

### Predecessors & successors

44. [Science History Institute -- Justus von Liebig and Friedrich Wohler: apothecary training as the route to 19th-century chemistry careers](https://www.sciencehistory.org/education/scientific-biographies/justus-von-liebig-and-friedrich-wohler/), Science History Institute
45. [SpringerLink -- ca. 1800-1848: The Professional Chemist (professionalization from natural philosophy)](https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-2770-5_10?error=cookies_not_supported&code=46598b1f-460a-4e73-baa9-aa60b5ce3186), Springer / History of Chemistry
46. [ACS -- John W. Draper and the Founding of the American Chemical Society (professional chemist emergence context)](https://www.acs.org/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/draperacs.html), American Chemical Society
47. [BLS OOH -- Natural Sciences Managers: career advancement from research scientist roles; median wage $162,760 (May 2024)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/natural-sciences-managers.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
48. [O\*NET OnLine -- Data Scientists (15-2051.00): Bright Outlook occupation, projected faster-than-average growth 2024-2034, ~23,400 annual openings](https://www.onetonline.org/link/details/15-2051.00), O\*NET / BLS

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Chemists (19-2031.00): tasks, work activities, technology skills, employment data](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/19-2031.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BLS OOH — Chemists and Materials Scientists: ~89,100 employed 2024; +8% growth 2024-2034; median $84,740; pharma and R&D services primary sectors](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/chemists-and-materials-scientists.htm), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science): occupational LLM exposure framework](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
- [IBM Research — RXN for Chemistry: AI reaction-pathway prediction and retrosynthesis; \>90% top-3 accuracy on benchmarks; pharma R&D adoption (2024-2025)](https://rxn.app.accelerate.science/rxn/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Schrödinger — AI-accelerated molecular simulation and property prediction: FEP+, Glide docking, generative ML; pharma and specialty materials R&D (2025)](https://www.schrodinger.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Nature (May 2024) — AlphaFold 3: accurate structure prediction of biomolecular interactions; directly applicable to structure-based medicinal chemistry and biochemist ligand design](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07487-w?error=cookies_not_supported&code=2b360610-e108-4e12-afbe-e1c471dacd39), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Cradle.bio Series B (Cradle, Nov 2024) — $73M raised; generative protein/enzyme engineering for biochemists](https://www.cradle.bio/blog/series-b), accessed 2026-06-21
- [Citrine Informatics — AI-driven materials property prediction and active-learning DOE; 3-10x reduction in experiment counts; BASF, Dow, 3M, Corning customers (Citrine 2025)](https://citrine.io/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Benchling 2025 — ELN and R&D data management; 70% of top-20 pharma; AI-assisted synthesis planning and chemical structure annotation; 21 CFR Part 11 compliant](https://www.benchling.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Mestrelab Research — Mnova AI: AI-assisted NMR peak picking, structure verification, and 1H/13C assignment; 60-80% reduction in routine spectral processing time (Mestrelab 2025)](https://mestrelab.com/main-product/mnova), accessed 2026-05-23
- [ACD/Labs — AI chromatographic method development: Method Selection Suite ML for HPLC column and mobile phase recommendation; reduces method development from days to hours (ACD/Labs 2025)](https://www.acdlabs.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [ACS Office of Professional Affairs — 2025 chemist workforce survey: demand growth in pharma R&D, battery materials, semiconductor chemicals; AI hybrid skills increasingly required](https://www.acs.org/careers/workforce.html), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Chemical & Engineering News (C&EN) — AI tools in synthetic chemistry, drug discovery, and materials research: IBM RXN, Schrödinger, AI-ELN adoption survey (2024-2025)](https://cen.acs.org/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [USPTO — Inventorship Guidance for AI-Assisted Inventions (Director Vidal, Feb 2024): AI cannot hold patent inventorship; human conception of claimed invention required](https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/02/13/2024-02623/inventorship-guidance-for-ai-assisted-inventions), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Elicit — AI research assistant; 200M+ papers; literature synthesis for reaction precedent and safety data review before synthetic campaigns (Elicit 2025)](https://elicit.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [ACS Publications — AI tools in chemical literature review: synthesis planning, reaction scouting, and precedent analysis in modern chemistry research (JACS 2025)](https://pubs.acs.org/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Materials Project — DFT-computed property database for inorganic materials: electronic, thermal, elastic, and optical properties for \>150,000 materials (materialsproject.org 2025)](https://materialsproject.org/), accessed 2026-05-23

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.