# Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers

US SOC code 19-2042. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/19-2042

Also called: Geoscientist, Geologist, Geophysicist, Exploration geologist, Petroleum geologist.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **23,470** US geoscientists (except hydrologists and geographers), with median pay of **$101,920** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2021, the highest was **25,230**, in May 2022. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1050/pdf/CIRC1050.pdf) of **1,100** from 1870, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for geoscientists: Leapfrog implicit geological modeling, 2006 to 2022.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 5.1% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-2042&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **47.8%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend.

## Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1807
- Latest US employment: 23,470 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [6]
- Latest US median pay: $101,920 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [9]
- Outlook: +5.1% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [21]

### All 30 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1870 | 1,100 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Scholarly estimate of ~1,100… [1] |
| 1890 | 3,500 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Estimated ~3,500 professional… [1] |
| 1930 | 12,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Estimated ~12,000 professional… [2] |
| 1970 | 28,000 (estimate) | $13,500 (estimate) | Est., Estimated ~28,000 US geologists and… (employment) [3]; Est., University of Missouri Libraries (pay) [7] |
| 1982 | 48,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., SERC Carleton [4] |
| 1985 | n/a | $38,000 (estimate) | Est., Augsburg University [8] |
| 2000 | 21,810 | n/a | BLS OEWS 2000 [5] |
| 2003 | 26,090 | $68,460 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [6] |
| 2004 | 25,100 | $68,730 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [6] |
| 2005 | 27,430 | $71,640 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [6] |
| 2006 | 28,980 | $72,660 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [6] |
| 2007 | 31,390 | $75,800 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [6] |
| 2008 | 31,260 | $79,160 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [6] |
| 2009 | 31,860 | $81,220 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [6] |
| 2010 | 30,830 | $82,500 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [6] |
| 2011 | 32,490 | $84,470 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [6] |
| 2012 | 35,180 | $90,890 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [6] |
| 2013 | 34,690 | $91,920 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [6] |
| 2014 | 34,000 | $89,910 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [6] |
| 2015 | 31,800 | $89,700 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [6] |
| 2016 | 30,420 | $89,780 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [6] |
| 2017 | 28,520 | $89,850 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [6] |
| 2018 | 29,260 | $91,130 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [6] |
| 2019 | 29,200 | $92,040 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [6] |
| 2020 | 27,890 | $93,580 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [6] |
| 2021 | 23,620 | $83,680 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [6] |
| 2022 | 25,230 | $87,480 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [6] |
| 2023 | 24,620 | $92,580 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [6] |
| 2024 | 22,510 | $99,240 | BLS OEWS May 2024 (employment) [6]; BLS OEWS May 2024 (pay) [10] |
| 2025 | 23,470 | $101,920 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [6] |

## Sources (91)

### Employment series

1. [Scholarly estimate of ~1,100 individuals practicing geology as a primary occupation in the US circa 1870 (federal/state survey rosters), with USGS Circular 1050 as historical context.](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1050/pdf/CIRC1050.pdf), Future History derived estimate (context: USGS Circular 1050)
2. [Estimated ~12,000 professional geoscientists (geologists and geophysicists) in the US circa 1930 across the petroleum industry, government surveys, and academia; USGS Circular 1050 as historical context.](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1050/1920s.htm), Future History derived estimate (context: USGS Circular 1050)
3. [Estimated ~28,000 US geologists and geophysicists circa 1970, derived from Census occupational classifications; American Geosciences Institute workforce overview as context.](https://profession.americangeosciences.org/learning/workforce-infographic/), American Geosciences Institute (derived estimate)
4. [SERC Carleton -- Understand Geoscience Employment Trends (historical employment cycles including the 1970s-1980s oil boom)](https://serc.carleton.edu/departments/professional/employment.html), Science Education Resource Center, Carleton College
5. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
6. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)

### Wage series

7. [University of Missouri Libraries -- Prices and Wages by Decade: 1970-1979 (professional and scientific occupations wage context)](https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1970-1979), University of Missouri Libraries / BLS historical sources
8. [Augsburg University -- "Boom or Bust" (history of petroleum geology profession through boom-bust cycles, salary and workforce context)](https://www.augsburg.edu/now/2015/12/04/boom-or-bust/), Augsburg University
9. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
10. [BLS OOH -- Geoscientists (May 2024): median annual wage $99,240; all sectors including oil and gas extraction, mining, government, and consulting](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/geoscientists.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Tool eras

11. [USGS Circular 1050 -- The United States Geological Survey: 1879-1989 (history of geological survey methods and field practices)](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1050/pdf/CIRC1050.pdf), U.S. Geological Survey
12. [USGS -- A Brief History of Geologic Mapping in the USGS (mapping methods and instrumentation evolution)](https://www.usgs.gov/programs/national-cooperative-geologic-mapping-program/brief-history-geologic-mapping-usgs), U.S. Geological Survey
13. [Society of Exploration Geophysicists -- History of seismic exploration: first commercial reflection survey at Orchard Salt Dome, Texas, 1924](https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/History_of_seismic_exploration), Society of Exploration Geophysicists
14. [Wikipedia -- Reflection seismology: history of digital recording and 3D seismic technology development](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_seismology), Wikipedia
15. [Wikipedia -- GeoQuest Systems (geology software for oil and gas industry, 1984-2001; acquired by Schlumberger 1992; predecessor of SLB Petrel platform)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoQuest_Systems), Wikipedia
16. [SLB Petrel subsurface software -- product overview (integrated subsurface interpretation and reservoir modeling platform for exploration to production)](https://www.slb.com/products-and-services/delivering-digital-at-scale/software/petrel-subsurface-software/petrel), SLB
17. [Seequent Leapfrog Geo -- implicit surface geological modeling; ML lithological classification; used at 80% of major mining companies](https://www.seequent.com/products-solutions/leapfrog-geo/), Seequent (Bentley)
18. [SLB Delfi digital platform -- open, scalable, cloud-based software environment for oil and gas exploration, development, drilling, production, and energy transition; hosts AI and data science solutions for subsurface geoscience](https://www.slb.com/products-and-services/delivering-digital-at-scale/software/delfi), SLB
19. [KoBold Metals -- AI-driven mineral exploration; $537M Series C (October 2024); Mingomba copper-cobalt discovery in Zambia via ML targeting; backed by BHP, Rio Tinto, Breakthrough Energy Ventures](https://koboldmetals.com/), KoBold Metals
20. [S&P Global Commodity Insights -- AI in Oil and Gas Industry (2024-2025): SLB DELFI and Halliburton DecisionSpace reducing seismic interpretation cycle times 30-60% across major operators](https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/research-analysis/ai-in-oil-and-gas.html), S&P Global Commodity Insights

### Forecasts and exposure studies

21. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 19-2042 Geoscientists, except hydrologists and geographers (2025: 25.4 thousand; 2035: 26.7 thousand; +5.1%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-2042&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
22. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 19-2042.00, human-rated β 0.478)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

23. [Wikipedia -- William Maclure: geological map of the United States (1809)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Maclure), Wikipedia
24. [HISTORY.com -- United States Geological Survey created, March 3, 1879](https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/march-3/united-states-geological-survey-created), HISTORY
25. [Encyclopedia.com -- Geological Surveys, State (history of state geological survey establishment and AASG founding)](https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/geological-surveys-state), Encyclopedia.com
26. [Society of Exploration Geophysicists -- History of seismic exploration: first commercial reflection survey, Orchard Salt Dome, Texas, 1924](https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/History_of_seismic_exploration), Society of Exploration Geophysicists
27. [SERC Carleton -- Understand Geoscience Employment Trends (oil boom employment cycle)](https://serc.carleton.edu/departments/professional/employment.html), Science Education Resource Center, Carleton College
28. [Augsburg University -- "Boom or Bust" (petroleum geology employment through the 1986 price collapse)](https://www.augsburg.edu/now/2015/12/04/boom-or-bust/), Augsburg University
29. [Council on Foreign Relations -- The Shale Gas and Tight Oil Boom (technology and employment context)](https://www.cfr.org/reports/shale-gas-and-tight-oil-boom), Council on Foreign Relations
30. [KoBold Metals -- Mingomba copper-cobalt discovery in Zambia (2024); $537M Series C (October 2024); largest new copper discoveries of the decade via ML targeting](https://koboldmetals.com/), KoBold Metals

### Predecessors & successors

31. [Wikipedia -- William Maclure (1763-1840), father of American geology; first geological map of the United States, 1809](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Maclure), Wikipedia
32. [USGS Circular 1050 -- predecessor survey bureaus (Hayden, Powell, Wheeler surveys) consolidated into USGS in 1879](https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1050/pdf/CIRC1050.pdf), U.S. Geological Survey
33. [HISTORY.com -- United States Geological Survey created March 3, 1879 (context of mineral resource survey mission)](https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/march-3/united-states-geological-survey-created), HISTORY
34. [KoBold Metals -- AI-driven mineral exploration; geoscience-domain ML engineers sought for AI targeting platform teams](https://koboldmetals.com/), KoBold Metals
35. [USEPA Class VI UIC -- geological documentation requirements for CO2 geologic sequestration; geoscientist characterization and permitting roles structurally new demand vector](https://www.epa.gov/uic/class-vi-wells-used-geologic-sequestration-carbon-dioxide), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Geoscientists, Except Hydrologists and Geographers (19-2042.00): tasks, work activities, technology skills, employment data](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/19-2042.00), accessed 2026-05-24
- [BLS OOH — Geoscientists: ~37,900 employed May 2024; +5% growth 2024-2034; median $96,150; oil and gas extraction, mining, consulting, and federal government as primary sectors](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/geoscientists.htm), accessed 2026-05-24
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science): occupational LLM exposure framework; geoscientists moderate exposure with data analysis and report writing augmented; field data collection lower exposure](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-24
- [KoBold Metals — AI-driven critical minerals exploration; $537M Series C (October 2024); Mingomba copper-cobalt discovery in Zambia via ML targeting; backed by BHP, Rio Tinto, Gates, Bezos](https://koboldmetals.com/), accessed 2026-05-24
- [SLB DELFI — cloud-native AI platform for subsurface geoscience; seismic foundation model (2024) for AI-assisted horizon picking and fault detection; SLB investor day 2025 performance intelligence strategy](https://www.slb.com/products-and-services/delivering-digital-at-scale/software/delfi), accessed 2026-05-24
- [S&P Global Commodity Insights — AI in Oil and Gas Industry (2024-2025): seismic AI platforms (SLB DELFI, Halliburton DecisionSpace) reducing interpretation cycle times 30-60% across major operators](https://www.spglobal.com/commodityinsights/en/ci/research-analysis/ai-in-oil-and-gas.html), accessed 2026-05-24
- [Seequent Leapfrog Geo — implicit surface geological modeling for mineral exploration and mine planning; ML lithological classification from drill core images; used at 80% of major mining companies](https://www.seequent.com/products-solutions/leapfrog-geo/), accessed 2026-05-24
- [McKinsey Global Institute — The Critical Minerals Challenge (2024): copper, lithium, cobalt, nickel demand to increase 3-5x by 2035; AI exploration targeting compresses timelines 10+ years to 3-5 years](https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/metals-and-mining/our-insights/the-raw-materials-challenge-how-the-metals-and-mining-sector-will-be-at-the-core-of-enabling-the-energy-transition), accessed 2026-05-24
- [SEC SK-1300 (S-K Item 1300) — Technical Report Summary: Qualified Person sign-off required for all public mineral resource and reserve disclosures; AI cannot hold QP designation; structural regulatory moat](https://www.sec.gov/files/rules/final/2018/33-10570.pdf), accessed 2026-05-24
- [Goldman Sachs — The Potentially Large Effects of Artificial Intelligence on Economic Growth (Briggs/Kodnani, 2023): science and engineering occupations augmentation-dominant; physical field work well-defended](https://www.gspublishing.com/content/research/en/reports/2023/03/27/d64e052b-0f6e-45d7-967b-d7be35fabd16.html), accessed 2026-05-24
- [SLB Petrel + DELFI — AI-assisted seismic horizon autotracking and fault detection; seismic foundation model (2024); industry-standard for O&G subsurface interpretation workflows](https://www.slb.com/products-and-services/delivering-digital-at-scale/software/petrel-subsurface-software), accessed 2026-05-24
- [dGB Earth Sciences OpendTect — open-source seismic interpretation with ML plugin; AI Interpretation Service (2024-2025); facies classification, first-break picking; 800+ companies, 70+ countries](https://dgbes.com/), accessed 2026-05-24
- [Goldspot Discoveries (TSX.V: SPOT) — AI-driven mineral prospectivity mapping; XGBoost/random forest/CNN on geophysical/geochemical/geological features; gold, copper, uranium, REE targeting for Kinross, Glencore, First Quantum (2025)](https://www.alsglobal.com/en/geoanalytics), accessed 2026-05-24

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.