# Clinical and Counseling Psychologists

US SOC code 19-3033. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/19-3033

Also called: Clinical psychologist, Counseling psychologist, Licensed psychologist, Licensed clinical psychologist, Licensed counseling psychologist.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **75,990** US clinical and counseling psychologists, with median pay of **$100,580** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2021, the May 2025 count is the highest. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology) of **4,000** from 1945, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for clinical and counseling psychologists: AI therapy chatbots, 2017 to 2020. AI chatbots served the "worried well" population that psychologists rarely treat anyway: mild subclinical distress, daily stress management, sleep hygiene.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 11.7% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-3033&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **50.9%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend.

## Clinical and Counseling Psychologists employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1879
- Latest US employment: 75,990 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [5]
- Latest US median pay: $100,580 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [7]
- Outlook: +11.7% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [24]

### All 9 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1945 | 4,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [1] |
| 1960 | 15,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [2] |
| 1980 | 40,000 (estimate) | $28,000 (estimate) | Est., Wikipedia (employment) [3]; Est., BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (pay) [6] |
| 2000 | 76,000 (estimate) | $60,000 (estimate) | Est., O\*NET 19-3033.00 (employment) [4]; Est., BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook (pay) [6] |
| 2021 | 58,100 | $82,510 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [5] |
| 2022 | 62,880 | $90,130 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [5] |
| 2023 | 71,730 | $96,100 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [5] |
| 2024 | 72,190 | $95,830 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [5] |
| 2025 | 75,990 | $100,580 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [5] |

## Sources (63)

### Employment series

1. [Wikipedia — Clinical psychology (WWII expansion: US had no formal programs in 1946; over half of all psychology PhDs by 1950 were clinical)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology), Wikipedia
2. [Wikipedia — American Psychological Association (APA founding 1892 by G. Stanley Hall; current 190,000 members; licensure standards)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association), Wikipedia
3. [Wikipedia — PsyD (Doctor of Psychology; Vail Conference 1973; practitioner-scholar model; programs now at traditional universities and professional schools)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsyD), Wikipedia
4. [O\*NET 19-3033.00 — BLS-sourced employment baseline context for clinical and counseling psychologists](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/19-3033.00), O\*NET / BLS
5. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)

### Wage series

6. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook — Psychologists (historical wage context, 1980-81 edition); inflation-era baseline estimate](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
7. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
8. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Tool eras

9. [Wikipedia — Wilhelm Wundt (1879 Leipzig laboratory; first laboratory exclusively for psychological research; 185 doctoral dissertations 1875-1919)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt), Wikipedia
10. [Wikipedia — Lightner Witmer (1896 first psychological clinic, University of Pennsylvania; coined "clinical psychology" 1907)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightner_Witmer), Wikipedia
11. [Wikipedia — Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (1916 Lewis Terman revision; initiated modern intelligence testing; used for 1.7M WWI recruits)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales), Wikipedia
12. [Wikipedia — Rorschach test (1921 Hermann Rorschach; 10 inkblots selected from 300 patients; Exner Comprehensive System standardizes scoring 1960s)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rorschach_test), Wikipedia
13. [Wikipedia — Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway and McKinley, University of Minnesota, 1943; 567 items MMPI-2; tightly controlled use requiring publisher training requirements)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory), Wikipedia
14. [Wikipedia — Boulder Conference (August 20–September 3, 1949; scientist-practitioner model; four-year training structure: foundation, therapy, internship, dissertation)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_Conference), Wikipedia
15. [Wikipedia — Clinical psychology (WWII expansion: US had no formal programs 1946; over half of all psychology PhDs clinical by 1950; VA and NIMH drove training)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology), Wikipedia
16. [Wikipedia — Vail Conference (1973, Vail Colorado; APA endorsement of PsyD degree; practitioner-scholar model; contrast with Boulder scientist-practitioner model)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vail_Conference), Wikipedia
17. [Wikipedia — PsyD (endorsed at 1973 Vail Conference; emphasizes application over research; same licensing eligibility as PhD; programs at traditional universities and professional schools)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PsyD), Wikipedia
18. [Wikipedia — Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (July 1, 1976; duty to protect third parties; 23 states codified duty-to-warn statutes by 2012)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarasoff_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California), Wikipedia
19. [Wikipedia — Mental Health Parity Act (2008 MHPAEA: equal financial requirements and treatment limits for mental health benefits; ACA 2010 essential health benefit)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_Health_Parity_Act), Wikipedia
20. [Fitzpatrick et al. (2017) — "Delivering Cognitive Behavior Therapy to Young Adults With Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety Using a Fully Automated Conversational Agent (Woebot): A Randomized Controlled Trial" (JMIR Mental Health; n=70 college students; PHQ-9 reduction vs informational ebook control; two-week trial)](https://mental.jmir.org/2017/2/e19/), JMIR Mental Health
21. [Wikipedia — Replika (founded November 2017, Eugenia Kuyda; 40M users by 2025; Mozilla privacy criticism 2023; Italy ban 2023)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Replika), Wikipedia
22. [BLS National Employment Matrix — 19-3033 Clinical and Counseling Psychologists (2024-34 projections: 76,300 to 84,800; +11.2%; 4,800 annual openings)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-3033&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
23. [Wikipedia — American Psychological Association (APA; founded 1892 G. Stanley Hall; 190,000+ members; Model Act for State Licensure requires doctoral degree)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association), Wikipedia

### Forecasts and exposure studies

24. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 19-3033 Clinical and counseling psychologists (2025: 81.3 thousand; 2035: 90.9 thousand; +11.7%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-3033&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
25. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 19-3033.00, human-rated β 0.509)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

26. [Wikipedia — Wilhelm Wundt (1879 Leipzig laboratory; first psychological research lab; 185 dissertations; official birth of psychology as independent field)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt), Wikipedia
27. [Wikipedia — American Psychological Association (founded July 1892 by G. Stanley Hall at Clark University; 30 founding members; now 190,000+ members)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychological_Association), Wikipedia
28. [Wikipedia — Lightner Witmer (1896 first psychological clinic at University of Pennsylvania; coined "clinical psychology" 1907; Psychological Clinic journal 1907)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightner_Witmer), Wikipedia
29. [Wikipedia — Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (1916 Lewis Terman revision; modern intelligence testing; 1.7M WWI recruits tested; "initiated the modern field of intelligence testing")](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford%E2%80%93Binet_Intelligence_Scales), Wikipedia
30. [Wikipedia — Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (1943 Hathaway and McKinley; 567-item MMPI-2; "tightly controlled" use requiring publisher training requirements; used in clinical, forensic, and employment contexts)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Multiphasic_Personality_Inventory), Wikipedia
31. [Wikipedia — Boulder Conference (August 20–September 3, 1949; University of Colorado; scientist-practitioner model; four-year training structure)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boulder_Conference), Wikipedia
32. [Wikipedia — Vail Conference (1973 Vail Colorado; APA endorsement of PsyD; practitioner-scholar model; contrast with Boulder scientist-practitioner model)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vail_Conference), Wikipedia
33. [Wikipedia — Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California (July 1, 1976; duty to protect; confidentiality yields to safety; 23 states with duty-to-warn statutes by 2012)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarasoff_v._Regents_of_the_University_of_California), Wikipedia
34. [BLS National Employment Matrix — 19-3033 (2024-34: +11.2%; 76,300 to 84,800; 4,800 annual openings; much faster than average)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=19-3033&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Predecessors & successors

35. [Wikipedia — Wilhelm Wundt (Leipzig laboratory trained 185 doctoral students 1875-1919; US graduates seeded American clinical departments)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt), Wikipedia
36. [Wikipedia — Clinical psychology (WWII: US went from zero formal programs 1946 to over half of all psychology PhDs being clinical by 1950)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_psychology), Wikipedia

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Clinical and Counseling Psychologists (19-3033.00): tasks, work activities, technology skills, knowledge domains, employment data](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/19-3033.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BLS OOH 2024-2034 — Psychologists: ~106,000 employed; +7% growth; median wage $96,100; highest employment in ambulatory healthcare, state government, and educational services](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/life-physical-and-social-science/psychologists.htm), accessed 2026-05-23
- [APA Ethics Code Standard 9 (Assessment) and APA Guidelines for the Use of Automated Scoring and Interpretation Services (updated 2024) — AI-generated test narratives are psychologist products; Standard 2.04 requires professional judgment grounding](https://www.apa.org/ethics/code), accessed 2026-05-23
- [APA Guidelines for the Use of Technology in Psychological Practice (2023 updated 2025) — informed consent for AI documentation; HIPAA BAA required; psychologist competence requirement for all tools used](https://www.apa.org/topics/artificial-intelligence-machine-learning/ethical-guidance-ai-professional-practice), accessed 2026-05-23
- [American Psychologist — "AI in Psychological Assessment" (2025): automated scoring validated; AI-generated interpretive narratives require psychologist editing; no AI product produces valid integrated neuropsychological reports without substantial psychologist authorship](https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/amp), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Pearson Q-global and Q-interactive — digital test delivery and automated scoring for WAIS-IV, WMS-IV, MMPI-3, WISC-V, WPPSI-IV, NEPSY-II; 18,000+ assessment psychologists in U.S.; AI-generated "suggested interpretive statements" for subtest scores](https://www.pearsonassessments.com/en-us/Store/Professional-Assessments/Q-global-Web-based-Administration%252C-Scoring%252C-and-Reporting/p/100000680?tab=ordering), accessed 2026-05-23
- [WPS PARiConnect — cloud-based scoring platform for BASC-3, Conners-4, Vineland-3, CAARS-2; AI-assisted report narrative feature (Q3 2025); first-draft interpretive paragraphs from scored test results](https://www.parinc.com/pariconnect), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eleos Health — AI ambient clinical documentation for behavioral health; deployed system-wide at LifeStance Health (largest U.S. outpatient mental health employer of psychologists); 30-60 min/day documentation time recouped](https://eleos.health/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Upheal — AI session notes for mental health clinicians; JMIR Mental Health pilot 2024; 5-10 hrs/week saved; HIPAA compliant; integrates with SimplePractice and Therapy Brands EHRs](https://www.upheal.io/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Blueprint Companion (SimplePractice) — AI progress notes, treatment plans, and psychoeducation materials; PHQ-9/GAD-7/PCL-5 outcome measure integration; used by 50,000+ therapists including doctoral-level private practice psychologists](https://www.blueprint.ai/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Spring Health — AI care navigation for employer mental health benefits; doctoral-level psychologist track for high-acuity and assessment referrals; 3,000+ employer deployments](https://www.springhealth.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Lyra Health — AI-matched employer benefits platform; doctoral-level provider track for complex presentations and evidence-based protocols; per-session PHQ-9/GAD-7 outcome tracking; 500+ employer clients](https://www.lyrahealth.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [NEJM AI — "Large Language Models in Mental Health Care" (Mar 2025): LLM suicide risk prediction has failed multiple benchmark evaluations; clinical risk assessment requires licensed human judgment and direct liability accountability](https://ai.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/AIra2400480), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology — "Predictors of Psychotherapy Outcome in the Age of Digital Mental Health" (2025): therapeutic alliance, therapist competence, and treatment fidelity predict outcomes for complex presentations; doctoral-level quality most predictive for high-acuity cases](https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/ccp), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Lancet Digital Health — "Digital Mental Health Platform Outcomes at Scale" (2024): doctoral-level psychologist services remain evidence-based standard for moderate-to-severe presentations; platforms preferentially match doctoral providers to higher-complexity cases](https://www.thelancet.com/journals/landig/home), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science): occupational LLM exposure framework; psychologists scored at moderate β-exposure; framework does not capture assessment competency or clinical judgment defensibility](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
- [SAMHSA 2024 NSDUH Annual National Report — national estimates of mental health and substance use treatment in the U.S.; documents unmet need / access gaps; doctoral-level psychologist shortage in rural and underserved areas; AI tools augment rather than substitute in access-gap frame](https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2024-nsduh-annual-national-report), accessed 2026-06-22
- [OpenEvidence — AI clinical knowledge synthesis; PubMed, Cochrane, and clinical guideline synthesis with citations; 200,000+ clinician users in U.S. by 2025; used by doctoral-level clinicians for point-of-care evidence synthesis (MedPage Today Jan 2026)](https://www.openevidence.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Spring Health — AI Compass care navigation; doctoral-level psychologist track for complex presentations and assessment referrals; 3,000+ employer deployments including Microsoft, Target, J.P. Morgan (2026 press releases)](https://springhealth.com/employers/), accessed 2026-06-22
- [Limbic Access — NICE-approved AI intake triage; 40+ NHS Talking Therapies services; PHQ-9, GAD-7, PCL-5 pre-assessment; 2M+ assessments completed; U.S. deployments via Magellan Health (2025)](https://limbic.ai/), accessed 2026-05-23

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.