# Elementary School Teachers, Except Special Education

US SOC code 25-2021. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/25-2021

Also called: Elementary school teacher, Elementary teacher, Grade school teacher, Primary school teacher, K-5 teacher.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **1,388,390** US elementary school teachers (except special education), with median pay of **$63,970** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the highest was **1,544,300**, in May 2009. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_032.asp) of **160,000** from 1870, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for elementary school teachers: Chromebook + Google Classroom, 2012 to 2020.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects little or no change in employment from 2025 to 2035 (-0.4%). Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=25-2021&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **31.1%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.0044** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.0044. BLS counted **1,344,240** of these jobs in May 2013 and **1,388,390** in May 2025 (+3%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Elementary School Teachers, Except Special Education employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1789
- Latest US employment: 1,388,390 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [4]
- Latest US median pay: $63,970 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [14]
- Outlook: -0.4% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [34]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **Canada** (NOC 41221)
  - Employment, 2020: 295,900. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [7]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021: number of persons with employment income in NOC 41221 Elementary school and kindergarten teachers, Canada, reference year 2020. A recipients basis (anyone with employment income during the year), slightly broader than a point-in-time employed count. Statistics Canada Open Licence.
  - Median pay, 2020: C$80,000. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [18]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021 (Table 98-10-0586): median employment income for NOC 41221 Elementary school and kindergarten teachers, Canada, reference year 2020, full-year full-time workers (the basis comparable to the US OEWS full-time median). Statistics Canada Open Licence.
- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 2314)
  - Employment, 2025: 400,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [10]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 2314 Primary education teaching professionals, United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £42,031. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [21]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 2314 Primary education teaching professionals, United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 2412)
  - Employment, 2025: 166,700. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey March 2026 [11]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 2412 Primary School Teachers, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$115,752. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [22]. Annualised (x52) from A$2,226 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile for ANZSCO 2412.

### All 33 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1870 | 160,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., NCES [1] |
| 1900 | 310,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., NCES [1] |
| 1920 | n/a | $800 (estimate) | Est., National Center for Education Statistics [12] |
| 1930 | n/a | $1,420 (average) | NCES [13] |
| 1940 | 600,000 (estimate) | $1,441 (average) | Est., NCES (employment) [1]; NCES (pay) [13] |
| 1950 | n/a | $3,010 (average) | NCES [13] |
| 1960 | 960,000 (estimate) | $4,800 (estimate) | Est., NCES (employment) [2]; Est., NCES Digest Table (dt09\_078) (pay) [12] |
| 1980 | 1,200,000 (estimate) | $15,500 (estimate) | Est., NCES (employment) [2]; Est., NCES Digest Table (dt09\_078) (pay) [12] |
| 1990 | n/a | $30,500 (estimate) | Est., NCES Digest Table (dt09\_078) [12] |
| 2000 | 1,409,140 | $40,500 (estimate) | BLS OEWS 2000 (employment) [3]; Est., NCES Digest Table (dt09\_078) (pay) [12] |
| 2003 | 1,432,800 | $42,160 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [4] |
| 2004 | 1,422,840 | $43,160 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [4] |
| 2005 | 1,486,650 | $44,040 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [4] |
| 2006 | 1,509,180 | $45,570 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [4] |
| 2007 | 1,538,030 | $47,330 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [4] |
| 2008 | 1,544,270 | $49,330 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [4] |
| 2009 | 1,544,300 | $50,510 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [4] |
| 2010 | 1,485,600 | $51,660 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [4] |
| 2011 | 1,415,590 | $52,840 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [4] |
| 2012 | 1,360,380 | $53,400 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [4] |
| 2013 | 1,344,240 | $53,590 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [4] |
| 2014 | 1,353,020 | $54,120 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [4] |
| 2015 | 1,381,430 | $54,890 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [4] |
| 2016 | 1,392,660 | $55,800 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [4] |
| 2017 | 1,409,140 | $57,160 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [4] |
| 2018 | 1,410,970 | $58,230 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [4] |
| 2019 | 1,430,480 | $59,670 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [4] |
| 2020 | 1,364,870 | $60,940 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [4] |
| 2021 | 1,329,280 | $61,400 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [4] |
| 2022 | 1,394,200 | $61,690 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [4] |
| 2023 | 1,410,070 | $63,680 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [4] |
| 2024 | 1,393,310 | $62,340 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [4] |
| 2025 | 1,388,390 | $63,970 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [4] |

## Sources (115)

### Employment series

1. [NCES — "Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869-70 through 2005-06" (Digest of Education Statistics, Table 032)](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_032.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
2. [NCES — "Public and private elementary and secondary teachers, enrollment, pupil/teacher ratios: fall 1955 through fall 2022" (Table 208.20)](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_208.20.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
3. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
4. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
5. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
6. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
7. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
8. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2315, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
9. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
10. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
11. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), March 2026](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

12. [NCES Digest / historical teacher salary data — average annual teacher salary approximately $871 in 1920; elementary teachers (overwhelmingly female, facing marriage bans in most districts) typically earned below the combined average. Gendered wage suppression was explicit policy.](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_078.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
13. [NCES Digest of Education Statistics, Table 201.10: average annual salary of public-school classroom teachers, 1929-30, $1,420. Pre-1959-60 figures cover all instructional staff (supervisors, principals, teachers) combined, per table footnote 12.](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d22/tables/dt22_201.10.asp), NCES
14. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
15. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
16. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
17. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
18. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
19. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2315, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
20. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
21. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
22. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Primary School Teachers (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/2412-primary-school-teachers), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

23. [Wikipedia — Hornbook: use in early American schools](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornbook), Wikipedia
24. [Britannica — "McGuffey Readers" (first published 1836, sold 120+ million copies)](https://www.britannica.com/topic/McGuffey-Readers), Encyclopaedia Britannica
25. [Resilient Educator — "History of the Classroom Blackboard"](https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/the-history-of-the-classroom-blackboard/), Resilient Educator
26. [EdTech Magazine — "How Mimeographs Transformed Information Sharing in Schools"](https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2020/09/how-mimeographs-transformed-information-sharing-schools), EdTech Magazine
27. [EdTech Magazine — "3M Overhead Projectors Began a New Era of Classroom Visual Aids"](https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2017/02/3m-overhead-projectors-began-new-era-classroom-visual-aids), EdTech Magazine
28. [Hack Education — "How Steve Jobs Brought the Apple II to the Classroom" (Kids Can't Wait program, 1983)](http://hackeducation.com/2015/02/25/kids-cant-wait-apple), Hack Education
29. [NearHub — "When Did Smartboards Come Out? The Complete History (1991-Today)"](https://www.nearhub.us/blog/when-did-smartboards-come-out), NearHub
30. [Kajeet — "Why Chromebooks Have Expanded in K-12 Classrooms" (from \<1% to 58% of K-12 devices 2012-2016)](https://www.kajeet.com/en/blog/why-chromebooks-have-expanded-in-k-12-classrooms), Kajeet
31. [EPI — "The pandemic has exacerbated a long-standing national shortage of teachers" (2022)](https://www.epi.org/publication/shortage-of-teachers/), Economic Policy Institute
32. [Gallup / Walton Family Foundation — "Teaching for Tomorrow: Unlocking Six Weeks a Year With AI" (2025): 3 in 10 teachers use AI weekly; weekly users save 5.9 hrs/week](https://news.gallup.com/poll/691967/three-teachers-weekly-saving-six-weeks-year.aspx), Gallup / Walton Family Foundation
33. [RAND — "Uneven Adoption of Artificial Intelligence Tools Among U.S. Teachers and Principals in the 2023-2024 School Year" (RRA134-25)](https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA134-25.html), RAND Corporation

### Forecasts and exposure studies

34. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 25-2021 Elementary school teachers, except special education (2025: 1,419.3 thousand; 2035: 1,413.4 thousand; -0.4%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=25-2021&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
35. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 25-2021 Elementary School Teachers, Except Special Education: probability 0.0044, rank 20 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
36. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 25-2021.00, human-rated β 0.311)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

37. [Britannica — "Horace Mann" (Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education, 1837)](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann), Encyclopaedia Britannica
38. [NEA — "The History of NEA" (founded 1857 as National Teachers Association)](https://www.nea.org/about-nea/mission-vision-values/history-nea), National Education Association
39. [AFT — "History of the AFT" (founded 1916 in Chicago)](https://www.aft.org/about/history), American Federation of Teachers
40. [Social Welfare History Project — "Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965" (VCU)](https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/elementary-and-secondary-education-act-of-1965/), Social Welfare History Project / VCU
41. [Wikipedia — "A Nation at Risk" (April 1983, National Commission on Excellence in Education)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Nation_at_Risk), Wikipedia
42. [Wikipedia — "No Child Left Behind Act" (signed January 8, 2002)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act), Wikipedia
43. [NCES — National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2022 Reading Report Card (4th grade decline)](https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/), National Center for Education Statistics / NAEP
44. [Gallup / Walton Family Foundation — "Teaching for Tomorrow: Unlocking Six Weeks a Year With AI" (2025)](https://news.gallup.com/poll/691967/three-teachers-weekly-saving-six-weeks-year.aspx), Gallup / Walton Family Foundation

### Predecessors & successors

45. [Wikipedia — Common school (history of early American primary education)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_school), Wikipedia
46. [Fiveable — "Horace Mann and the push for universal education" (Massachusetts normal schools 1839)](https://fiveable.me/history-education/unit-7/horace-mann-push-universal-education/study-guide/UmF68joduiHQFE3V), Fiveable
47. [O\*NET 11-9032.00 — Education Administrators, Kindergarten through Secondary](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/11-9032.00), O\*NET / BLS
48. [O\*NET 25-9031.00 — Instructional Coordinators](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/25-9031.00), O\*NET / BLS

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Elementary School Teachers, Except Special Education (25-2021.00)](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/25-2021.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
- [BLS OES May 2023 — Elementary School Teachers, Except Special Education (25-2021): median annual wage $61,620](https://www.bls.gov/oes/2023/may/oes252021.htm), accessed 2026-05-23
- [NAEP 2024 Reading Report Card — 33% of 4th-grade students read below the Basic achievement level nationally](https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/achievement/?grade=4), accessed 2026-05-23
- [RAND — Teachers and AI: A Survey of Teacher Perspectives on AI Tools in K-12 Education (2024)](https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-21.html), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Stanford HAI — Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations (2025)](https://hai.stanford.edu/news/ai-k-12-education), accessed 2026-05-23
- [MagicSchool AI — Product overview: 3M+ teachers using AI for lesson planning, rubric writing, differentiation, IEP goals, parent emails (2025)](https://www.magicschool.ai/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Amira Learning — AI reading tutor: IES What Works Clearinghouse ESSA Tier II evidence for K-5 oral reading fluency and phonics (2025)](https://amiralearning.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Microsoft Reading Coach — Embedded AI fluency tutor in Teams for Education and Edge; free for K-12 schools (2025)](https://www.microsoft.com/en-au/education), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Lexia — Core5 Reading and LETRS professional learning: adaptive K-5 phonics and early literacy instruction platform (2025)](https://www.lexialearning.com/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [ISTE — AI in Education: Guidance for Educators on Responsible AI Use (2025)](https://iste-ascd.org/ai), accessed 2026-05-23
- [MagicSchool AI — How AI tools help reduce teacher workload: communication templates and administrative tasks among key time-saving uses (2026)](https://www.magicschool.ai/blog-posts/ai-tools-reduce-teacher-workload), accessed 2026-06-22
- [Diffit — AI text differentiation: adapts any article or URL to a target reading level or grade in seconds; free for teachers (2025)](https://app.diffit.me/), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Brisk Teaching — AI-powered rubric and feedback tools for Google Workspace: one-click rubric generation and inline student feedback (2025)](https://www.briskteaching.com/), accessed 2026-05-23

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.