# Secondary School Teachers

US SOC code 25-2031. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/25-2031

Also called: High school teacher, High school English teacher, High school math teacher, High school science teacher, High school history teacher.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **1,065,210** US secondary school teachers, with median pay of **$72,040** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2012, the highest was **1,072,540**, in May 2024, close to the May 2025 count. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_032.asp) of **20,000** from 1870, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for secondary school teachers: 1:1 Chromebook + Google Classroom, 2012 to 2020.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects little or no change in employment from 2025 to 2035 (-0.2%). Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=25-2031&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **34.1%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.0078** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.0078. BLS counted **946,730** of these jobs in May 2013 and **1,065,210** in May 2025 (+13%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Secondary School Teachers employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1821
- Latest US employment: 1,065,210 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [5]
- Latest US median pay: $72,040 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [15]
- Outlook: -0.2% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [42]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **Canada** (NOC 41220)
  - Employment, 2020: 153,335. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [8]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021: number of persons with employment income in NOC 41220 Secondary school teachers, Canada, reference year 2020. A recipients basis (anyone with employment income during the year), slightly broader than a point-in-time employed count. Statistics Canada Open Licence.
  - Median pay, 2020: C$85,000. Source: Statistics Canada Census 2021 [19]. Statistics Canada Census of Population 2021 (Table 98-10-0586): median employment income for NOC 41220 Secondary school teachers, Canada, reference year 2020, full-year full-time workers (the basis comparable to the US OEWS full-time median). Statistics Canada Open Licence.
- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 2313)
  - Employment, 2025: 466,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [11]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 2313 Secondary education teaching professionals, United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £44,246. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [22]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 2313 Secondary education teaching professionals, United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 2414)
  - Employment, 2025: 166,300. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey [12]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 2414 Secondary School Teachers, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$120,744. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [23]. Annualised (x52) from A$2,322 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.

### All 33 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1870 | 20,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., NCES [1] |
| 1900 | 60,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., NCES [1] |
| 1920 | n/a | $871 (estimate) | Est., Encyclopedia.com [13] |
| 1930 | 270,000 (estimate) | $1,420 (estimate) | Est., Goldin & Katz (employment) [2]; Est., Encyclopedia.com (pay) [13] |
| 1960 | 580,000 (estimate) | $5,174 (estimate) | Est., NCES (employment) [3]; Est., NCES Digest Table (d09/078) (pay) [14] |
| 1970 | n/a | $8,800 (estimate) | Est., NCES Digest Table [14] |
| 1980 | 800,000 (estimate) | $16,100 (estimate) | Est., NCES (employment) [3]; Est., NCES Digest Table (pay) [14] |
| 1990 | n/a | $31,367 (estimate) | Est., NCES Digest Table [14] |
| 2000 | n/a | $41,807 (estimate) | Est., NCES Digest Table [14] |
| 2002 | 984,600 | n/a | BLS OEWS 2002 [4] |
| 2003 | 1,011,240 | $44,580 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [5] |
| 2004 | 1,021,180 | $45,650 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [5] |
| 2005 | 1,015,740 | $46,060 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [5] |
| 2006 | 1,030,780 | $47,740 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [5] |
| 2007 | 1,058,870 | $49,420 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [5] |
| 2008 | 1,090,490 | $51,180 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [5] |
| 2009 | 1,091,710 | $52,200 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [5] |
| 2010 | 1,053,140 | $53,230 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [5] |
| 2011 | 1,004,850 | $54,270 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [5] |
| 2012 | 959,770 | $55,050 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [5] |
| 2013 | 946,730 | $55,360 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [5] |
| 2014 | 960,380 | $56,310 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [5] |
| 2015 | 962,820 | $57,200 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [5] |
| 2016 | 1,003,250 | $58,030 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [5] |
| 2017 | 1,027,230 | $59,170 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [5] |
| 2018 | 1,051,570 | $60,320 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [5] |
| 2019 | 1,035,850 | $61,660 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [5] |
| 2020 | 991,000 | $62,870 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [5] |
| 2021 | 1,020,240 | $61,820 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [5] |
| 2022 | 1,042,090 | $62,360 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [5] |
| 2023 | 1,045,170 | $65,220 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [5] |
| 2024 | 1,072,540 | $64,580 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [5] |
| 2025 | 1,065,210 | $72,040 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [5] |

## Sources (120)

### Employment series

1. [NCES — "Historical summary of public elementary and secondary school statistics: 1869-70 through 2005-06" (Digest of Education Statistics, Table 032)](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_032.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
2. [Goldin & Katz — "Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910-1940" (NBER Working Paper 6439)](https://www.nber.org/papers/w6439), National Bureau of Economic Research
3. [NCES — "Public and private elementary and secondary teachers, enrollment, pupil/teacher ratios: fall 1955 through fall 2023" (Table 208.20)](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_208.20.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
4. [BLS OES 2002 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes02nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
5. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
6. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
7. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
8. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
9. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
10. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2313, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
11. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2313, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
12. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), latest release](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

13. [Encyclopedia.com — "Education 1929–1941": average annual teacher pay $871 in 1920, rising to $1,420 in 1930 (secondary teachers near or above average)](https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-and-education-magazines/education-1929-1941), Encyclopedia.com
14. [NCES Digest Table (d09/078) — estimated average annual salary of public elementary and secondary school teachers: $4,995 in 1959-60; secondary teachers historically earned slightly above the combined average](https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_078.asp), National Center for Education Statistics
15. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
16. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
17. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2006, Table 97-563-XCB2006069 (Wage and salary statistics by occupation, NOC-S 2006), income reference year 2005](https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2006/dp-pd/tbt/Rp-eng.cfm?LANG=E&PID=96285), Statistics Canada
18. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2016, Table 98-400-X2016356 (Occupation by employment income statistics, NOC 2016), income reference year 2015](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-400-X2016356), Statistics Canada
19. [Statistics Canada, Census of Population 2021, Table 98-10-0586 (Employment income statistics by occupation unit group, NOC 2021), income reference year 2020](https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810058601), Statistics Canada
20. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2314, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip)
21. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2313, United Kingdom, 2022. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), Office for National Statistics
22. [ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 2313, United Kingdom, 2025. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0.](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip), Office for National Statistics
23. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Secondary School Teachers (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/2414-secondary-school-teachers), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

24. [The English High School Association — "History of The English High School" (founded 1821)](https://englishhighalumni.org/2021/07/09/history-of-the-english-high-school/), The English High School Association
25. [Resilient Educator — "History of the Classroom Blackboard"](https://resilienteducator.com/classroom-resources/the-history-of-the-classroom-blackboard/), Resilient Educator
26. [Slate — "A history of the blackboard: How the blackboard became an effective and ubiquitous teaching tool"](https://slate.com/human-interest/2014/10/a-history-of-the-blackboard-how-the-blackboard-became-an-effective-and-ubiquitous-teaching-tool.html), Slate Magazine
27. [EdTech Magazine — "How Mimeographs Transformed Information Sharing in Schools"](https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2020/09/how-mimeographs-transformed-information-sharing-schools), EdTech Magazine
28. [Wikipedia — Mimeograph (history and educational adoption)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mimeograph), Wikipedia
29. [EdTech Magazine — "3M Overhead Projectors Began a New Era of Classroom Visual Aids"](https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2017/02/3m-overhead-projectors-began-new-era-classroom-visual-aids), EdTech Magazine
30. [NextTools — "The Rise and Fall of Overhead Projectors in Schools"](https://nexttools.net/when-were-overhead-projectors-used-in-schools/), NextTools
31. [Hack Education — "How Steve Jobs Brought the Apple II to the Classroom" (Kids Can't Wait program, 1983)](http://hackeducation.com/2015/02/25/kids-cant-wait-apple), Hack Education
32. [Wikipedia — Apple II (history of educational adoption)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_II), Wikipedia
33. [NearHub — "When Did Smartboards Come Out? The Complete History (1991-Today)"](https://www.nearhub.us/blog/when-did-smartboards-come-out), NearHub
34. [ListEdTech — "A Brief History of Blackboard" (LMS founding 1997)](https://www.listedtech.com/blog/brief-history-blackboard/), ListEdTech
35. [Kajeet — "Why Chromebooks Have Expanded in K-12 Classrooms" (from \<1% to 58% of K-12 devices 2012-2016)](https://www.kajeet.com/en/blog/why-chromebooks-have-expanded-in-k-12-classrooms), Kajeet
36. [Ohio State University Press / OER — "The Evolution and Diffusion of Learning Management Systems: Canvas LMS" (Google Classroom as dominant K-12 platform)](https://ohiostate.pressbooks.pub/drivechange/chapter/the-evolution-and-diffusion-of-learning-management-systems-the-case-of-canvas-lms/), Ohio State University
37. [EPI — "The pandemic has exacerbated a long-standing national shortage of teachers" (2022)](https://www.epi.org/publication/shortage-of-teachers/), Economic Policy Institute
38. [PMC — "Two Years Later: How COVID-19 Has Shaped the Teacher Workforce" (PMC9974372)](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9974372/), PMC / NIH
39. [RAND Corporation — "Teachers and AI: A Survey of Teacher Perspectives on AI Tools in K-12 Education" (2024)](https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA956-21.html), RAND Corporation
40. [Stanford HAI — "Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations" (2025)](https://hai.stanford.edu/news/ai-k-12-education), Stanford Human-Centered AI Institute
41. [MagicSchool AI — Product overview: 3M+ teachers, 5-10 hrs/week time savings on lesson planning, rubrics, IEP goals, parent emails (2025)](https://www.magicschool.ai/), MagicSchool AI

### Forecasts and exposure studies

42. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 25-2031 Secondary school teachers, except special and career/technical education (2025: 1,087.5 thousand; 2035: 1,085.0 thousand; -0.2%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=25-2031&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
43. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 25-2031 Secondary School Teachers, Except Special and Career/Technical Education: probability 0.0078, rank 41 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
44. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 25-2031.00, human-rated β 0.341)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

45. [The English High School Association — "History of The English High School"](https://englishhighalumni.org/2021/07/09/history-of-the-english-high-school/), The English High School Association
46. [Britannica — "Horace Mann" (Secretary of Massachusetts Board of Education, 1837)](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Horace-Mann), Encyclopaedia Britannica
47. [NEA — "The History of NEA" (founded 1857 as National Teachers Association)](https://www.nea.org/about-nea/mission-vision-values/history-nea), National Education Association
48. [Goldin & Katz — "Human Capital and Social Capital: The Rise of Secondary Schooling in America, 1910-1940" (NBER Working Paper 6439)](https://www.nber.org/papers/w6439), National Bureau of Economic Research
49. [EdTech Magazine — "3M Overhead Projectors Began a New Era of Classroom Visual Aids" (NDEA funding drove 1962+ school technology purchases)](https://edtechmagazine.com/k12/article/2017/02/3m-overhead-projectors-began-new-era-classroom-visual-aids), EdTech Magazine
50. [Wikipedia — "A Nation at Risk" (April 1983, National Commission on Excellence in Education)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Nation_at_Risk), Wikipedia
51. [Wikipedia — "Highly qualified teachers" (No Child Left Behind Act requirements)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highly_qualified_teachers), Wikipedia
52. [Stanford HAI — "Artificial Intelligence in K-12 Education: Opportunities, Challenges, and Recommendations" (2025)](https://hai.stanford.edu/news/ai-k-12-education), Stanford Human-Centered AI Institute

### Predecessors & successors

53. [The English High School Association — "History of The English High School" (institutional predecessor model)](https://englishhighalumni.org/2021/07/09/history-of-the-english-high-school/), The English High School Association
54. [Horace Mann and the push for universal education — Fiveable (Massachusetts normal schools 1839)](https://fiveable.me/history-education/unit-7/horace-mann-push-universal-education/study-guide/UmF68joduiHQFE3V), Fiveable
55. [O\*NET 11-9032.00 — Education Administrators, Kindergarten through Secondary](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/11-9032.00), O\*NET / BLS
56. [O\*NET 13-1151.00 — Training and Development Specialists](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00), O\*NET / BLS

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Secondary School Teachers, Except Special and Career/Technical Education (25-2031.00)](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/25-2031.00), accessed 2026-05-23
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-05-23
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How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.