# Billing and Posting Clerks

US SOC code 43-3021. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/43-3021

Also called: Billing clerk, Medical biller, Billing specialist, Revenue cycle specialist, Accounts receivable clerk.

## In brief

The record starts in 1870 with an estimated **38,000** bookkeepers and accountants, the closest group the census kept. In May 2025, BLS counted **404,060** billing and posting clerks. Median pay was **$48,500** a year in May 2025. Of the BLS counts since 2012, the highest was **493,840**, in May 2013. The last full technology era for billing and posting clerks: EHR mandates and ICD-10 transition, 2009 to 2018.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects little or no change in employment from 2025 to 2035 (-0.1%). Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=43-3021&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **41.7%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.96** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.96. BLS counted **493,840** of these jobs in May 2013 and **404,060** in May 2025 (-18%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Billing and Posting Clerks employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1776
- Latest US employment: 404,060 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [5]
- Latest US median pay: $48,500 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [11]
- Outlook: -0.1% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [27]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 4129)
  - Employment, 2025: 98,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [6]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 4129 Financial administrative occupations n.e.c., United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £25,936. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [13]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 4129 Financial administrative occupations n.e.c., United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 5511)
  - Employment, 2025: 139,400. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey [7]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 5511 Accounting Clerks, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$74,984. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [14]. Annualised (x52) from A$1,442 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.

### All 29 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1870 | 38,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wootton & Kemmerer [1] |
| 1900 | 250,000 | n/a | Decennial Census 1900 [2] |
| 1910 | n/a | $624 (estimate) | Est., University of Missouri Libraries [8] |
| 1940 | 486,000 | n/a | Decennial Census [3] |
| 1950 | n/a | $2,600 (estimate) | Est., University of Missouri Libraries [9] |
| 2000 | 492,040 | $24,560 | BLS OEWS 2000 [4] |
| 2003 | 487,420 | $26,290 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [5] |
| 2004 | 496,780 | $27,040 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [5] |
| 2005 | 513,020 | $27,780 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [5] |
| 2006 | 517,750 | $28,850 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [5] |
| 2007 | 515,060 | $29,970 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [5] |
| 2008 | 512,120 | $30,950 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [5] |
| 2009 | 493,780 | $31,720 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [5] |
| 2010 | 483,440 | $32,170 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [5] |
| 2011 | 485,820 | $32,880 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [5] |
| 2012 | 490,850 | $33,450 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [5] |
| 2013 | 493,840 | $33,820 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [5] |
| 2014 | 490,860 | $34,410 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [5] |
| 2015 | 491,070 | $35,050 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [5] |
| 2016 | 485,220 | $36,150 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [5] |
| 2017 | 476,010 | $36,860 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [5] |
| 2018 | 469,250 | $37,800 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [5] |
| 2019 | 466,450 | $38,740 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [5] |
| 2020 | 445,160 | $39,590 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [5] |
| 2021 | 429,080 | $38,330 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [5] |
| 2022 | 441,980 | $42,810 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [5] |
| 2023 | 430,220 | $45,590 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [5] |
| 2024 | 417,500 | $47,170 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [5] |
| 2025 | 404,060 | $48,500 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [5] |

## Sources (99)

### Employment series

1. [Wootton & Kemmerer, "The Changing Genderization of Bookkeeping in the United States, 1870-1930," Business History Review (census-derived combined count of bookkeepers and accountants, scholarly secondary source)](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/abs/changing-genderization-of-bookkeeping-in-the-united-states-18701930/60BD69BB8A925B8AE32267428DF39D26), Business History Review (Cambridge University Press)
2. [1900 Census Special Reports: Occupations at the Twelfth Census (Census Bureau publication, 1904)](https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1904/dec/occupations.html), US Census Bureau
3. [US Census Bureau -- Comparative Occupation Statistics 1870-1940 (Part II, Table comparing occupation series)](https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/population-occupation/00312147ch2.pdf), US Census Bureau
4. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
5. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
6. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 4129, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
7. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), latest release](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

8. [University of Missouri Libraries, "Prices and Wages by Decade: 1910-1919" (female bookkeeper/clerical earnings, ~$12/week annualized to $624/yr)](https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1910-1919), University of Missouri Libraries
9. [University of Missouri Libraries, "Prices and Wages by Decade: 1950-1959" (clerical and bookkeeping worker earnings)](https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1950-1959), University of Missouri Libraries
10. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
11. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
12. [BLS OEWS May 2024, national cross-industry estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
13. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 4129, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
14. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Accounting Clerks (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/5511-accounting-clerks), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

15. [ShoreSource Business Solutions -- "Balancing the Nation: A Brief History of Bookkeeping in the USA" (counting-house era, 19th century ledger practice)](https://www.shoresourcebiz.com/blogs/balancing-the-nation-a-brief-history-of-bookkeeping-in-the-usa), ShoreSource Business Solutions
16. [Library of Congress Research Guide -- History of Accounting: 18th and 19th Centuries](https://guides.loc.gov/history-of-accounting/practice/18th-and-19th-century), Library of Congress
17. [Cambridge Core / Business History Review -- "The Changing Genderization of Bookkeeping in the United States, 1870-1930" (typewriter and bookkeeping machine feminization)](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/business-history-review/article/abs/changing-genderization-of-bookkeeping-in-the-united-states-18701930/60BD69BB8A925B8AE32267428DF39D26), Cambridge University Press / Business History Review
18. [JSTOR Daily -- "Why Is Clerical Work Women's Work?" (feminization of bookkeeping 1870-1920)](https://daily.jstor.org/clerical-work-womens-work/), JSTOR Daily
19. [Computer History Museum -- "An Empire Built on Punched Cards" (IBM tabulating machines, Social Security 1935, office workforce)](https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/punched-cards/2/12), Computer History Museum
20. [Smithsonian National Museum of American History -- "From Herman Hollerith to IBM" (tabulating equipment collection)](https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object-groups/tabulating-equipment/from-herman-hollerith-to-ibm), Smithsonian National Museum of American History
21. [Thrive Medical Billing -- "The History of Medical Billing: Evolution and Impact" (Medicare/Medicaid 1965, HCFA forms, ICD/CPT codes)](https://thrivemedicalbilling.com/the-history-of-medical-billing-evolution-and-impact/), Thrive Medical Billing
22. [All Things Medical Billing -- "History of Medical Coding" (CPT codes 1966, HCPCS 1983, ICD-9 adoption)](https://www.all-things-medical-billing.com/history-of-medical-coding), All Things Medical Billing
23. [Thessi Group -- "The Evolution of Electronic Medical Claims and Revenue Cycle Management in the US Healthcare System" (HIPAA 1996, EDI mandate, 837/835 standards)](https://thessigroup.com/the-evolution-of-electronic-medical-claims-and-revenue-cycle-management-in-the-us-healthcare-system/), Thessi Group
24. [EDI Basics -- "HIPAA EDI Document Standard" (X12 837 and 835 transaction standards, HIPAA mandate)](https://www.edibasics.com/edi-resources/document-standards/hipaa/), EDI Basics
25. [CodaMetrix -- #1 Best in KLAS autonomous medical coding 2026; 70% manual coding reduction, 60% cost reduction](https://www.codametrix.com/resources/autonomous-medical-coding-revolution), CodaMetrix
26. [Cleveland Clinic / AKASA -- Strategic collaboration (Apr 2025): 71% of accounts removed from staff queues, 5,559 hours saved in 8 months](https://newsroom.clevelandclinic.org/2025/04/29/cleveland-clinic-and-akasa-announce-strategic-collaboration-to-launch-ai-tools-for-the-revenue-cycle), Cleveland Clinic / AKASA

### Forecasts and exposure studies

27. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 43-3021 Billing and posting clerks (2025: 418.0 thousand; 2035: 417.7 thousand; -0.1%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=43-3021&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
28. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 43-3021 Billing and Posting Clerks: probability 0.96, rank 643 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
29. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 43-3021.00, human-rated β 0.417)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

30. [ShoreSource Business Solutions -- "Balancing the Nation: A Brief History of Bookkeeping in the USA" (1776 government bookkeeper appointment)](https://www.shoresourcebiz.com/blogs/balancing-the-nation-a-brief-history-of-bookkeeping-in-the-usa), ShoreSource Business Solutions
31. [JSTOR Daily -- "Why Is Clerical Work Women's Work?" (1866 federal pay disparity precedent)](https://daily.jstor.org/clerical-work-womens-work/), JSTOR Daily
32. [Computer History Museum -- "An Empire Built on Punched Cards" (IBM and Social Security Act 1935)](https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/punched-cards/2/12), Computer History Museum
33. [Thrive Medical Billing -- "The History of Medical Billing: Evolution and Impact" (Medicare and Medicaid 1965)](https://thrivemedicalbilling.com/the-history-of-medical-billing-evolution-and-impact/), Thrive Medical Billing
34. [All Things Medical Billing -- "History of Medical Coding" (CPT codes developed by AMA in 1966)](https://www.all-things-medical-billing.com/history-of-medical-coding), All Things Medical Billing
35. [EDI Basics -- "HIPAA EDI Document Standard" (HIPAA 1996, X12 837 and 835 transaction mandates)](https://www.edibasics.com/edi-resources/document-standards/hipaa/), EDI Basics
36. [Waystar -- Introduces Agentic AI to Advance Toward the Autonomous Revenue Cycle (January 2026)](https://www.waystar.com/news/waystar-introduces-agentic-ai-to-advance-toward-the-autonomous-revenue-cycle/), Waystar

### Predecessors & successors

37. [ShoreSource Business Solutions -- "Balancing the Nation: A Brief History of Bookkeeping in the USA"](https://www.shoresourcebiz.com/blogs/balancing-the-nation-a-brief-history-of-bookkeeping-in-the-usa), ShoreSource Business Solutions
38. [JSTOR Daily -- "Why Is Clerical Work Women's Work?" (feminization of bookkeeping 1870-1920)](https://daily.jstor.org/clerical-work-womens-work/), JSTOR Daily

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 -- Billing and Posting Clerks (43-3021.00)](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/43-3021.00), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 -- GPTs are GPTs (Science)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Goldman Sachs (2023) -- Generative AI and clerical support: 45% of work automatable (via CNBC)](https://www.cnbc.com/2023/03/28/ai-automation-could-impact-300-million-jobs-heres-which-ones.html), accessed 2026-06-03
- [BLS OOH -- Financial Clerks employment outlook (little or no change, 2024-2034)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/office-and-administrative-support/financial-clerks.htm), accessed 2026-06-03
- [hitconsultant.net -- Waystar Launches Agentic AI to Prevent Billions in Denials: agentic workflows, prior auth automation, 40% reduction in manual correction workload (Jan 2026)](https://hitconsultant.net/2026/01/14/fintech-waystar-agentic-intelligence-autonomous-revenue-cycle-2026/), accessed 2026-06-22
- [CodaMetrix -- #1 Best in KLAS autonomous medical coding 2026; 70% manual coding reduction, 60% cost reduction](https://www.codametrix.com/resources/autonomous-medical-coding-revolution), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Cleveland Clinic / AKASA -- Strategic collaboration (Apr 2025): 71% of accounts removed from staff queues, 5,559 hours saved in 8 months](https://newsroom.clevelandclinic.org/2025/04/29/cleveland-clinic-and-akasa-announce-strategic-collaboration-to-launch-ai-tools-for-the-revenue-cycle), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Experian Health -- 63% of providers use AI in revenue cycle workflows; 50% cite data privacy as top barrier (2025 survey)](https://www.experian.com/blogs/healthcare/revenue-cycle-management-and-ai/), accessed 2026-06-03
- [omniMD -- Top 5 AI Medical Billing Platforms 2026: Waystar, AKASA, CodaMetrix, OmniMD, athenahealth](https://omnimd.com/blog/top-ai-medical-billing-platforms/), accessed 2026-06-03
- [CureAdvantage -- How AI Is Transforming Medical Billing Practices in 2026: claim scrubbing 15-25% first-pass improvement, AR days down 20-30%](https://cureadvantage.com/how-ai-is-transforming-medical-billing-practices-in-2026/), accessed 2026-06-03

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.