# Operating Engineers and Other Construction Equipment Operators

US SOC code 47-2073. Markdown version of https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/47-2073

Also called: Heavy equipment operator, Operating engineer, Equipment operator, Excavator operator, Bulldozer operator.

## In brief

In May 2025, [BLS](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip) counted **478,090** US operating engineers and other construction equipment operators, with median pay of **$59,850** a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the May 2025 count is the highest. The earliest figure here is [an estimate](https://www.iuoe.org/About/History) of **45,000** from 1900, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era in this work: 3D GPS machine control + autonomous haul trucks in mining, 2005 to 2018.

## What the sources say

### Official outlook

BLS projects employment to grow 4.6% from 2025 to 2035. Source: [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=47-2073&ioType=o).

### AI exposure studies

- **8.7%** of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. [Eloundou and others, 2023](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv)
- **0.95** estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. [Frey and Osborne, 2013](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf)

### Since the 2013 prediction

In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.95. BLS counted **340,950** of these jobs in May 2013 and **478,090** in May 2025 (+40%, a change derived by Future History).

Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.

## Operating Engineers and Other Construction Equipment Operators employment and pay by year

- On record since: 1839
- Latest US employment: 478,090 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [7]
- Latest US median pay: $59,850 (May 2025). Source: BLS OEWS May 2025 [12]
- Outlook: +4.6% by 2035. Source: BLS Employment Projections 2025-35 [22]

### In other countries

The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.

- **United Kingdom** (UK SOC 8229)
  - Employment, 2025: 38,000. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [8]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in SOC 8229 Mobile machine drivers and operatives n.e.c., United Kingdom, 2025 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
  - Median pay, 2025: £36,408. Source: ONS ASHE 2025 [13]. ONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for all employee jobs in SOC 8229 Mobile machine drivers and operatives n.e.c., United Kingdom, 2025. Open Government Licence v3.0.
- **Australia** (ANZSCO 7212)
  - Employment, 2025: 49,300. Source: ABS Labour Force Survey [9]. ABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 7212 Earthmoving Plant Operators, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
  - Median pay, 2025: A$98,800. Source: ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 [14]. Annualised (x52) from A$1,900 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.

### All 29 years of cited US data

| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 1900 | 45,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., International Union of Operating… [1] |
| 1920 | 120,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [2] |
| 1940 | 180,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [3] |
| 1960 | 320,000 (estimate) | n/a | Est., Wikipedia [4] |
| 1980 | 380,000 (estimate) | $19,500 (estimate) | Est., BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook [5] |
| 2000 | 333,200 | $33,250 | BLS OEWS 2000 [6] |
| 2003 | 343,640 | $35,030 | BLS OEWS May 2003 [7] |
| 2004 | 357,080 | $35,360 | BLS OEWS May 2004 [7] |
| 2005 | 378,720 | $35,830 | BLS OEWS May 2005 [7] |
| 2006 | 393,090 | $36,890 | BLS OEWS May 2006 [7] |
| 2007 | 403,620 | $38,130 | BLS OEWS May 2007 [7] |
| 2008 | 398,910 | $39,270 | BLS OEWS May 2008 [7] |
| 2009 | 368,200 | $39,770 | BLS OEWS May 2009 [7] |
| 2010 | 334,730 | $40,400 | BLS OEWS May 2010 [7] |
| 2011 | 335,410 | $41,510 | BLS OEWS May 2011 [7] |
| 2012 | 335,160 | $41,870 | BLS OEWS May 2012 [7] |
| 2013 | 340,950 | $42,540 | BLS OEWS May 2013 [7] |
| 2014 | 344,510 | $43,510 | BLS OEWS May 2014 [7] |
| 2015 | 355,140 | $44,600 | BLS OEWS May 2015 [7] |
| 2016 | 356,750 | $45,890 | BLS OEWS May 2016 [7] |
| 2017 | 365,300 | $47,040 | BLS OEWS May 2017 [7] |
| 2018 | 383,480 | $47,810 | BLS OEWS May 2018 [7] |
| 2019 | 405,750 | $48,980 | BLS OEWS May 2019 [7] |
| 2020 | 402,870 | $49,770 | BLS OEWS May 2020 [7] |
| 2021 | 404,820 | $48,360 | BLS OEWS May 2021 [7] |
| 2022 | 423,040 | $51,430 | BLS OEWS May 2022 [7] |
| 2023 | 450,370 | $56,160 | BLS OEWS May 2023 [7] |
| 2024 | 469,270 | $58,710 | BLS OEWS May 2024 [7] |
| 2025 | 478,090 | $59,850 | BLS OEWS May 2025 [7] |

## Sources (104)

### Employment series

1. [International Union of Operating Engineers — History (founding December 7, 1896; early membership context)](https://www.iuoe.org/About/History), International Union of Operating Engineers
2. [Wikipedia — "Steam Shovel" (Panama Canal deployment: 102 steam shovels, Bucyrus and Marion, decade-long dig)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel), Wikipedia
3. [Wikipedia — "Caterpillar Inc." (founded April 15, 1925; merger of C.L. Best and Holt Manufacturing; first-year sales $13M)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar_Inc.), Wikipedia
4. [Wikipedia — "Interstate Highway System" (Federal Aid Highway Act 1956; 48,890 miles; $634B in 2024 dollars; 35-year construction period)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System), Wikipedia
5. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook — Construction Equipment Operators (historical employment context)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/construction-and-extraction/construction-equipment-operators.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
6. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
7. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
8. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 8229, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
9. [ABS: Labour Force, Australia, Detailed, table EQ08 (Employed persons by Occupation unit group, ANZSCO 2013), latest release](https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/labour/employment-and-unemployment/labour-force-australia-detailed/latest-release), Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Wage series

10. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook — Construction Equipment Operators (1980-81 edition wage context; inflation adjustment via BLS CPI-U calculator)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/construction-and-extraction/construction-equipment-operators.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
11. [BLS OES 2000 national estimates (flat file)](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oes00nat.zip), Bureau of Labor Statistics
12. BLS OEWS, national cross-industry estimates (flat file), Bureau of Labor Statistics. Editions: [2003](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm03nat.zip), [2004](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm04nat.zip), [2005](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm05nat.zip), [2006](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm06nat.zip), [2007](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm07nat.zip), [2008](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm08nat.zip), [2009](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm09nat.zip), [2010](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm10nat.zip), [2011](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm11nat.zip), [2012](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm12nat.zip), [2013](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm13nat.zip), [2014](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm14nat.zip), [2015](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm15nat.zip), [2016](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm16nat.zip), [2017](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm17nat.zip), [2018](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm18nat.zip), [2019](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm19nat.zip), [2020](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm20nat.zip), [2021](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm21nat.zip), [2022](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm22nat.zip), [2023](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm23nat.zip), [2024](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm24nat.zip), [2025](https://www.bls.gov/oes/special-requests/oesm25nat.zip)
13. ONS: Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14.7a (Annual pay - Gross), 4-digit SOC 8229, United Kingdom. Office for National Statistics, Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings, Table 14. Licensed under the Open Government Licence v3.0., Office for National Statistics. Editions: [2002](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2002/2002-table-14.zip), [2006](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2006consistentw_007methodology/2006-table-14.zip), [2010](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2010revised/2010-revised-table-14.zip), [2011](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2011revisedbasedonsoc2010/2011-revised-table-14.zip), [2015](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2015/table142015revised.zip), [2020](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2020revised/table142020revised.zip), [2022](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2022revised/ashetable142022revised.zip), [2025](https://www.ons.gov.uk/file?uri=/employmentandlabourmarket/peopleinwork/earningsandworkinghours/datasets/occupation4digitsoc2010ashetable14/2025provisional/ashetable142025provisional.zip)
14. [Jobs and Skills Australia: Earthmoving Plant Operators (ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025)](https://www.jobsandskills.gov.au/data/occupation-and-industry-profiles/occupations/7212-earthmoving-plant-operators), Jobs and Skills Australia / Australian Bureau of Statistics

### Tool eras

15. [Wikipedia — "Steam Shovel" (William Otis 1839 patent; full-swing design 1884; Panama Canal 102 shovels)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel), Wikipedia
16. [International Union of Operating Engineers — History (December 7, 1896 founding; steam shovel and hoist engineer organizing)](https://www.iuoe.org/About/History), International Union of Operating Engineers
17. [Wikipedia — "Caterpillar Inc." (founded April 15, 1925; Holt + Best merger; crawler tracks named by photographer; first-year sales $13M)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar_Inc.), Wikipedia
18. [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook — Construction Equipment Operators (historical equipment evolution; hydraulic excavator adoption)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/construction-and-extraction/construction-equipment-operators.htm), Bureau of Labor Statistics
19. [Wikipedia — "Trimble Inc." (founded November 1978 by Charles Trimble; Caterpillar collaboration 1995; CTCT joint venture 2002; first blade-mounted GPS product)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimble_Inc.), Wikipedia
20. [Wikipedia — "Built Robotics" (autonomous construction equipment context; Komatsu and Caterpillar autonomous systems; mining vs. construction deployment)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_Robotics), Wikipedia
21. [BLS National Employment Matrix — 47-2073 Operating Engineers (2024-34: +3.6%, +17.8k jobs; baseline 489.3k)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=47-2073&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics

### Forecasts and exposure studies

22. [BLS Employment Projections 2025-35, National Employment Matrix: 47-2073 Operating engineers and other construction equipment operators (2025: 489.5 thousand; 2035: 511.8 thousand; +4.6%)](https://data.bls.gov/projections/nationalMatrix?queryParams=47-2073&ioType=o), Bureau of Labor Statistics
23. [Frey & Osborne (2013), "The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?", Appendix (SOC 47-2073 Operating Engineers and Other Construction Equipment Operators: probability 0.95, rank 617 of 702)](https://oms-www.files.svdcdn.com/production/downloads/academic/The_Future_of_Employment.pdf), Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford
24. [Eloundou, Manning, Mishkin & Rock (2023), "GPTs are GPTs", occupation-level exposure data occ\_level.csv (O\*NET-SOC 47-2073.00, human-rated β 0.087)](https://github.com/openai/GPTs-are-GPTs/blob/main/data/occ_level.csv), OpenAI

### Historical notes

25. [Wikipedia — "Steam Shovel" (William Otis 1839 patent; partial-swing rail-mounted design; three-man crew; cousin Chapman developed commercial market)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel), Wikipedia
26. [International Union of Operating Engineers — History (founding December 7, 1896 in Chicago; "steam" dropped 1928; 409,840 members; 123 local unions)](https://www.iuoe.org/About/History), International Union of Operating Engineers
27. [Wikipedia — "Caterpillar Inc." (founded April 15, 1925; Best + Holt merger; Benjamin Holt track test November 24, 1904; "caterpillar" named by photographer; $13M first-year sales)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar_Inc.), Wikipedia
28. [Wikipedia — "Interstate Highway System" (Federal Aid Highway Act June 1956; 48,890 miles; $634B in 2024 dollars; completed 1992)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interstate_Highway_System), Wikipedia
29. [Wikipedia — "Trimble Inc." (founded November 1978 by Charles Trimble; Caterpillar collaboration 1995; CTCT joint venture 2002; first blade-mounted GPS for bulldozers)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimble_Inc.), Wikipedia
30. [Wikipedia — "Built Robotics" (Komatsu autonomous haul trucks; Caterpillar MineStar; mining vs. construction environment; IUOE partnership context)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_Robotics), Wikipedia
31. [Wikipedia — "Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act" (IIJA: $1.2T; signed November 15, 2021; $110B roads/bridges; $105B transit; peak spending 2024-2028)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_Investment_and_Jobs_Act), Wikipedia

### Predecessors & successors

32. [International Union of Operating Engineers — History (founding December 7, 1896 in Chicago by steam engineers and hoist operators)](https://www.iuoe.org/About/History), International Union of Operating Engineers
33. [Wikipedia — "Built Robotics" (IUOE partnership March 2020: train operators for autonomous equipment; renewed 2023 through 2026)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Built_Robotics), Wikipedia

### Present-day analysis

- [O\*NET 30.3 — Operating Engineers and Other Construction Equipment Operators (47-2073.00)](https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/47-2073.00), accessed 2026-06-03
- [BLS Occupational Outlook Handbook — Construction Equipment Operators (2024-2034 projection)](https://www.bls.gov/ooh/construction-and-extraction/construction-equipment-operators.htm), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Caterpillar — Unveils AI-Powered Future and Invests in the Workforce Building It (CES 2026)](https://www.caterpillar.com/en/news/corporate-press-releases/h/ai-powered-future.html), accessed 2026-06-03
- [ConstructConnect — Caterpillar Debuts AI-Powered Equipment and Virtual Assistant at CES 2026](https://news.constructconnect.com/caterpillar-debuts-ai-powered-equipment-and-virtual-assistant-at-ces-2026), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Komatsu — Intelligent Machine Control (iMC) 3.0 overview](https://www.komatsu.com/en-us/technology/smart-construction/imc-3-0), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Trimble — Earthworks Grade Control Platform (excavators and dozers)](https://civilconstruction.trimble.com/en/products/machine-control-and-guidance/trimble-earthworks), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Trimble — Studies show novice operators 62% faster with Earthworks automatics vs. conventional](https://www.constructionequipment.com/technology/electronic-grade-controls-gps-and-laser/article/10757894/trimble-trimble-studies-show-machine-tech-results), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Teleo — Supervised Autonomy for heavy construction equipment (Bauma 2025 live demo)](https://www.equipmentjournal.com/tech-news/teleo-semi-autonomous-heavy-equipment/), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Eloundou et al. 2024 — GPTs are GPTs (Science)](https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.10130), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Associated Training Services — Construction Industry Forecast 2025-2030: Job Outlook for Heavy Equipment Operators](https://www.operator-school.com/blog/construction-industry-forecast-2025-2030-job-outlook-for-heavy-equipment-operators/), accessed 2026-06-03
- [IUOE — Operating Engineers Training and Apprenticeship](https://www.iuoe.org/training/training-by-trade/operating-engineers-training/), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Caterpillar — Teams With NVIDIA to Revolutionize Heavy Industry with Physical AI and Robotics](https://www.caterpillar.com/en/news/corporate-press-releases/h/cat-nvidia-collab.html), accessed 2026-06-03
- [Robotics & Automation News — Teleo secures orders for 34 autonomous vehicles, expands to new industries (Oct 2024)](https://roboticsandautomationnews.com/2024/10/01/teleo-secures-orders-for-34-autonomous-vehicles-for-heavy-industry-and-plans-to-expand-beyond-construction/86040/), accessed 2026-06-03

How to read these figures: https://futurehistory.earth/methodology. Every figure links to its own source; gaps stay gaps.