Restaurant cooks
Official title Cooks, Restaurant (SOC 35-2014)
Also called Line cook, Prep cook, Sauté cook, Grill cook, Fry cook
In brief
In May 2025, BLS counted 1,409,890 US restaurant cooks, with median pay of $37,390 a year. Of the BLS counts since 2003, the highest was 1,452,130, in May 2024, close to the May 2025 count. The earliest figure here is an estimate of 200,000 from 1900, not measured the same way as today's count. The last full technology era for restaurant cooks: Miso Robotics Flippy + fry-station automation, 2018 to 2024. At White Castle, Flippy operates alongside human cooks rather than replacing them entirely: the robot handles the repetitive fry-station tasks while human cooks manage the rest of the kitchen.
What the sources say
Official outlook
BLS projects employment to grow 12.1% from 2025 to 2035.
AI exposure studies
- 12.2% of this job's tasks are exposed to large language models. Not a forecast of job losses. Eloundou and others, 2023
- 0.96 estimated probability that the whole occupation could be computerised, over an unspecified number of years. Not a forecast of job losses. Frey and Osborne, 2013
Since the 2013 prediction
In 2013, Frey and Osborne put this job's probability of computerisation at 0.96. BLS counted 1,057,550 of these jobs in May 2013 and 1,409,890 in May 2025 (+33%, a change derived by Future History).
Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. BLS publishes these counts as yearly survey snapshots and cautions against reading them as a precise trend. In May 2021 BLS changed how it estimates these counts (a model-based method using three years of survey data) and moved fully to the 2018 occupation codes, so part of a change across 2021 can come from the method rather than the work.
Last updated .
Cite this page
Future History. (2026, October 11). Restaurant cooks: jobs and pay since 1900 [Data set; data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35]. https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/35-2014
Future History. "Restaurant cooks: jobs and pay since 1900." Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35. Last modified October 11, 2026. https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/35-2014.
@misc{futurehistory_35_2014, author = {{Future History}}, title = {Restaurant cooks: jobs and pay since 1900}, year = {2026}, month = oct, howpublished = {\url{https://futurehistory.earth/timeline/35-2014}}, note = {Last updated 2026-10-11. Data as of BLS OEWS May 2025; BLS Employment Projections 2025-35}, }
The access date is today's date on your device.
≈ $36,431 in 2024 prices (derived by us, CPI-adjusted)
John and Peter Delmonico open a confectionery at 23 William Street in lower Manhattan with $20,000 in gold coins brought from Switzerland. By 1837 they have expanded into a full restaurant with à la carte printed menus in French and English, cloth-covered tables, private dining rooms, and a permanent kitchen staff trained to cook to individual order. Delmonico's establishes the template for the American restaurant kitchen: a brigade of cooks working coordinated stations, producing a varied menu for strangers who arrived without advance notice. Dishes invented in its kitchen (Lobster Newberg, Baked Alaska, Eggs Benedict) enter the American culinary canon.
Horn & Hardart opens the first American Automat at 818 Chestnut Street in Philadelphia: coin-operated compartments dispensing pre-prepared food without a server. The kitchens behind the Automat walls produce food in large batches: soups, stews, and baked goods portioned into compartments by unseen cooks. At peak, Horn & Hardart operates more than 80 New York locations feeding hundreds of thousands daily. The Automat is the first industrial model of restaurant cooking in America, and the first sustained test of whether you can systematically remove the cook from the customer's view. The cooks remain essential; only the service layer disappears.
Auguste Escoffier publishes Le Guide Culinaire in London: 5,000 recipes organized by the brigade de cuisine, the most comprehensive codification of professional kitchen organization ever assembled. Escoffier's brigade system (saucier, rôtisseur, entremetier, garde manger, pâtissier, each with chef de partie and commis beneath) is still the organizational chart of every serious full-service restaurant kitchen operating today. For the cook, it means a defined station, a defined skill set, and a defined career ladder: the institutional structure that distinguishes the line cook from a generalist kitchen worker.
Richard and Maurice McDonald redesign their San Bernardino drive-in around industrial engineering principles: a large flat-top griddle, a dedicated fry station, an assembly line for bun and condiment preparation. The Speedee Service System produces a hamburger in thirty seconds. Ray Kroc observes it in 1954 and begins franchising in 1955. By 1963, McDonald's is selling one million hamburgers per day. The Speedee Service System creates the mass-employment restaurant cook: trainable in days, specialized to one station, producing a standardized product at industrial throughput. It is the template for the entire fast-food kitchen industry, and, four decades later, the template that automation researchers will identify as most susceptible to robotic substitution.
Anthony Bourdain publishes Kitchen Confidential: Adventures in the Culinary Underbelly, a memoir of twenty-five years working restaurant kitchens in New York City that becomes a bestseller and eventually a television series. Bourdain's portrait of the line cook (brutal hours, physical heat, immigrant labor, the camaraderie of shared suffering, the pride of a clean pass) is the most widely read description of the profession ever published. It does not make line cooking glamorous; it makes it legible. The population of people who want to be line cooks increases. CIA enrollment rises through the early 2000s.
Frey & Osborne publish 'The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?' at the Oxford Martin School, a landmark study rating 702 occupations by probability of automation within 10-20 years. Restaurant cooks receive a probability of approximately 0.96, in the top decile of automation risk, ranked alongside telemarketers and data-entry keyers. The study's logic: high repetition, standard recipes, limited social perception requirements. A decade later, the fry-station robots exist. The 0.96 employment collapse does not.
Miso Robotics deploys Flippy, an AI-powered robot arm, at CaliBurger's Pasadena location. The deployment lasts two days before the surrounding human team cannot keep pace with the robot's output and the workflow integration fails. Miso Robotics pauses and redesigns. Flippy 2.0 deploys at White Castle in 2020, where it handles fry station tasks (basket dropping, cook time monitoring, basket lifting) alongside human cooks. The integration question proves to be the harder problem: not whether a robot can flip a fry basket, but whether it can do so without disrupting the human coordination that surrounds it.
COVID-19 closes restaurant dining rooms across the US in March 2020. By April, 8 million food service workers have been laid off or furloughed; approximately 110,000 restaurants permanently close by December 2020, roughly 17% of the industry. For restaurant cooks, the collapse is severe but not complete: kitchen workers retained for delivery and carry-out operations keep some employment. The ghost kitchen model, delivery-only brands operating from shared commercial kitchens, expands rapidly during closures. CloudKitchens, DoorDash Kitchens, and Kitchen United add capacity even as traditional restaurants contract. By 2022, restaurant cook employment recovers to near pre-pandemic levels, with ghost kitchens adding an estimated 70,000 new establishments to the sector.
Chipotle discloses testing of two automation technologies: Autocado, a robot that halves, pits, and peels avocados for guacamole prep, and Hyphen, an automated makeline that portions rice, beans, and proteins into bowls from digital order input. Sweetgreen opens its first Infinite Kitchen format: an assembly-line salad robot derived from its 2021 acquisition of Boston startup Spyce. Both systems operate in the standardized-recipe, high-volume fast-casual segment. The question they raise for the industry: if the assembly-line layer of fast-casual cooking is automatable, does that displace line cooks or change what line cooks do? Early evidence points toward the latter: the robots handle portioning while humans manage prep, quality control, and the edges that fall outside the automation's scope.
Will AI replace restaurant cooks? What the research says
Each figure is stated by the named source; we publish no forecasts of our own. Where sources disagree, we show the disagreement rather than an average.
Each figure is stated by the named source; we publish no forecasts of our own. Where sources disagree, the spread is the honest signal.
What's changing day to day for restaurant cooks
Three parts of your work where AI is already doing real lifting, and what stays yours.
AI is taking this onExecute high-volume fry-station production at QSR and fast-casual settings, managing fryer baskets, timer coordination, and hold times across multiple simultaneous orders: a task where Miso Robotics Flippy (120 baskets/hour, 40+ fried food types) now handles physical execution at a growing subset of White Castle and other QSR deployments.
Execute high-volume fry-station production at QSR and fast-casual settings, managing fryer baskets, timer coordination, and hold times across multiple simultaneous orders: a task where Miso Robotics Flippy (120 baskets/hour, 40+ fried food types) now handles physical execution at a growing subset of White Castle and other QSR deployments.[5],[12]
Fry-station robotics are deployed and improving: Flippy's latest generation is twice as fast as earlier models and cheaper to install. In a QSR kitchen where Flippy is installed, the cook's role shifts to loading, quality oversight, troubleshooting, and handling the exceptions the robot misses. Build skills that travel across station types (grill, sauté, prep) so your value doesn't hinge on a single high-automation position. Full-service and scratch kitchens remain far from robotic fry automation.
AI is taking this onAssist with high-volume repetitive prep tasks (chopping vegetables, processing bulk ingredients, assembling standardized menu components) at fast-casual chains where automated assembly systems like Sweetgreen's Infinite Kitchen (500 bowls/hour) and Chipotle's Autocado avocado robot (26 seconds per avocado) are progressively absorbing the most structured portions of this work.
Assist with high-volume repetitive prep tasks (chopping vegetables, processing bulk ingredients, assembling standardized menu components) at fast-casual chains where automated assembly systems like Sweetgreen's Infinite Kitchen (500 bowls/hour) and Chipotle's Autocado avocado robot (26 seconds per avocado) are progressively absorbing the most structured portions of this work.[13],[14]
Standardized bulk prep (the most repetitive, highest-volume assembly tasks) is exactly what fast-casual automation targets first. Sweetgreen's Infinite Kitchen processes hundreds of bowls/hour and Chipotle's Autocado halves guacamole prep time. If you're in a fast-casual kitchen, develop skills that travel beyond the automated stations: sauce and seasoning development, quality supervision of the automated output, and the ability to spot when the machine's output falls short of standard. In full-service settings, the premium is on technique-intensive prep (butchering, charcuterie, pastry work) that automated systems have not approached.
AI is sitting alongside you hereTrack and manage ingredient freshness (rotating stock [FIFO], checking for quality on delivery, and flagging items approaching end of shelf life) with AI food-waste tracking systems like Winnow VisionAI automatically identifying and weighing discarded items to surface waste patterns chefs can act on.
Track and manage ingredient freshness (rotating stock [FIFO], checking for quality on delivery, and flagging items approaching end of shelf life) with AI food-waste tracking systems like Winnow VisionAI automatically identifying and weighing discarded items to surface waste patterns chefs can act on.[15],[10]
Winnow VisionAI and similar systems automatically log every item thrown away (scale + camera recognition trained on 500M+ images) and deliver daily waste reports to kitchen leadership. Cooks who engage with these reports (understanding which prep items are consistently over-produced, which raw ingredients arrive in poor condition) drive the operational decisions (adjusted par levels, supplier conversations, menu tweaks) that actually close the waste loop. A 64% waste reduction at Guckenheimer's multi-site operations (2025 case study) reflects both the tool and the cook behavior it enables.
Where restaurant cooks go next
Natural next steps for someone with your foundation: not exits, evolutions.
- Chefs and Head Cooks
- US median pay
- $62,470 (May 2025)
- BLS outlook 2025-35
- +6.6%
- First-Line Supervisors of Food Preparation and Serving Workers
- US median pay
- $44,080 (May 2025)
- BLS outlook 2025-35
- +5.4%
- Food Preparation Workers
- US median pay
- $35,320 (May 2025)
- BLS outlook 2025-35
- -3%
- Bakers
- US median pay
- $37,160 (May 2025)
- BLS outlook 2025-35
- +5.5%
What each move takes
Chefs and Head Cooks
The most direct career progression from restaurant cook: accumulating technique depth, station mastery, and culinary leadership experience across multiple years is the documented path to sous chef and head chef roles. BLS projects growth for Chefs and Head Cooks through 2034 and the median wage is substantially higher. Chefs and head cooks who direct kitchen operations, develop menus, and manage the culinary team carry substantially more human advantage: the creative, supervisory, and food-business judgment that robots and AI prep tools do not exercise. AI literacy (understanding Winnow data, KDS analytics, prep forecasting) becomes a differentiator for cooks angling toward kitchen leadership: demonstrating you can optimize kitchen economics, not just cook well, is the language head chef candidates need to speak in a data-driven restaurant.
- · Multi-station mastery: work every station in the kitchen across multiple service types before moving up
- · Culinary fundamentals at the professional level: stocks, mother sauces, butchery, pastry basics, ServSafe Manager certification
- · Menu costing: recipe costing, food cost percentage targets, portion control against yield data
- · Team leadership fundamentals: scheduling coordination, shift briefings, training junior cooks
- · AI kitchen analytics literacy: reading Winnow waste reports and ClearCOGS prep recommendations to make data-backed kitchen decisions
How has the work of restaurant cooks changed since 1789?
The tools that defined the work, one line per era. Select an era to see how it reshaped the work.
Open-hearth fireplace + hand tools (tavern and early restaurant kitchen)
The kitchen of the early American tavern and the first American restaurants was built on fire management: an open hearth or brick oven fueled by wood, iron pots and spits, and the cook's ability to judge heat by hand and eye. American taverns of the late 18th century featured a single hearth serving an entire kitchen: soups, roasts, and breads competing for position around a single heat source. Delmonico's opened in 1827 with coal and wood ranges; the cook's central skill was temperature management across multiple preparations without independent heat zones. Knives were the precision instrument: a skilled cook could butcher, fabricate, and portion with tools that have not materially changed in two centuries.
Commercial gas range + commercial cast-iron range (urban restaurant kitchen)
Commercial gas ranges reached American city restaurants by the 1860s-1880s as urban gas infrastructure expanded. The enclosed cast-iron range with multiple independent burners gave line cooks simultaneous independent heat zones for the first time, making it physically possible to hold a beurre blanc and a braise and a sauté simultaneously without competing for position around a single hearth. Alexis Soyer had demonstrated gas cooking at the Reform Club in London in 1841; by the 1870s American manufacturers including Garland (founded 1864) were producing commercial ranges for hotel and restaurant use. This tool shift enabled the Escoffier brigade model: multiple cooks at a single range line, each managing their own station at independent temperatures.
Horn & Hardart Automat steam tables + batch production (1902-1991)
Horn & Hardart opened the first American Automat in Philadelphia in 1902: coin-operated compartments dispensing pre-prepared food held in steam tables. At its peak the Automat was the largest restaurant chain in the world, feeding hundreds of thousands of daily customers with no table service and a cooking model built on large-batch production: soups, stews, pot pies, and baked goods produced in quantity and portioned on demand. For the cooks who worked the Automat prep kitchens (hidden from view, unlike the public compartments), this was the first industrial model of restaurant cooking: volume production, standardized recipes, and batch replenishment rather than à la carte cooking to order. The Automat closed its last location in New York on April 9, 1991.
Escoffier brigade system + mise-en-place discipline (Le Guide Culinaire, 1903)
Escoffier's Le Guide Culinaire (1903) codified the brigade de cuisine: the military-style kitchen hierarchy that became the organizing principle of every serious professional kitchen. For the line cook, the brigade system meant a defined station (saucier, rôtisseur, entremetier, garde manger), a defined mise-en-place (everything prepped and in place before service), and a defined chain of command. The cook's job became the mastery of a specific station's techniques rather than generalist competence. Hotel restaurants in New York, Chicago, and San Francisco adopted the brigade model through the 1910s and 1920s; as the model spread to casual dining through the 1930s and 1940s, it created the organizational template that fast-food kitchens would later industrial-rationalize.
McDonald's Speedee Service System: flat-top griddle + dedicated fry station (1948)
In 1948 Richard and Maurice McDonald redesigned their San Bernardino drive-in around industrial engineering principles they called the Speedee Service System: a large flat-top griddle for burger patties, a dedicated french-fry station with commercial deep fryers, a milkshake machine bank, and an assembly line for condiment and bun preparation. Each cook did one repetitive task at high speed. The first McDonald's kitchen produced a hamburger in seconds: faster than any short-order cook of the era. Ray Kroc observed the system in 1954 and began franchising in 1955; by 1963 McDonald's was selling one million hamburgers per day. The Speedee Service System is the direct ancestor of every fast-food kitchen operating today, and of the automation thesis, because a kitchen built on single-task repetition is inherently more automatable than one built on artisanal judgment.
Effect on the workThe Speedee Service System deskilled the fast-food kitchen relative to the Escoffier brigade: cooks no longer needed years of training, they needed days. This enabled rapid staffing of hundreds of identical kitchens but also created the conditions (single-task repetition, no craft learning) that eventually made fry stations automatable. The two-tier kitchen economy (skilled line cooks in full-service restaurants, deskilled fast-food workers) became structurally entrenched.
Commercial microwave oven (Amana Radarange 1967) + commercial refrigeration expansion
Amana introduced the first practical countertop microwave oven in 1967 (the Radarange, $495 retail). Commercial adoption in restaurant kitchens was rapid: by the late 1970s, most full-service and casual-dining restaurants used commercial microwave units for reheating, holding temperature, and accelerating prep tasks that did not require browning. The microwave was a genuine labor multiplier for the restaurant kitchen: a single cook with a microwave could handle tasks that previously required a second burner and constant attention. Combined with the expansion of commercial walk-in refrigeration, it enabled the shift from fully à la minute cooking toward partially par-cooked production, transforming kitchen prep economics across the industry.
POS ticket printer + kitchen display system (KDS): digital order management
The kitchen display system, a screen at the cook's station showing active tickets rather than printed paper, entered full-service restaurants through the 1990s and 2000s. Aloha Technologies (founded 1986), Micros Systems, and later Toast (founded 2013) built KDS units into their POS ecosystems. For the line cook, the KDS replaced the handwritten paper dupe and the shouted expo call with a visual queue: each ticket displayed on screen, fired in order, bumped when complete. The KDS did not change what the cook cooked, but it changed how the line managed throughput: cooks could see total ticket load at a glance, expeditors could call without paper, and the kitchen's rhythm became data-visible for the first time. By 2010, KDS was standard equipment in any full-service restaurant with a modern POS installation.
Miso Robotics Flippy + fry-station automation (CaliBurger 2018; White Castle 2020+)
In March 2017, Miso Robotics unveiled Flippy: an AI-powered robot arm designed to flip burger patties and manage a commercial fry station. Its first deployment at CaliBurger in Pasadena in 2018 lasted two days before the surrounding human team could not keep pace with the robot's output; the deployment was paused for workflow redesign. White Castle deployed Flippy 2.0 in 2020 and expanded the program. As of 2023, Miso Robotics reported deployments at Jack in the Box, White Castle, and other fast-food chains. Flippy handles fry station tasks (dropping baskets, monitoring cook times, lifting baskets, draining oil) continuously without fatigue. It does not plate, season, expedite, or interact with the broader kitchen. The constraint is not the robot's capability but the workflow integration: a fry station inside a working kitchen requires constant human coordination that a single-task robot arm cannot manage alone.
Effect on the workAt White Castle, Flippy operates alongside human cooks rather than replacing them entirely: the robot handles the repetitive fry-station tasks while human cooks manage the rest of the kitchen. The displacement is real but narrow: confined to the specific repetitive subset of restaurant cook work that most closely resembles a single-axis industrial robot's capabilities.
Chipotle Hyphen makeline + Sweetgreen Infinite Kitchen + AI menu engineering (2023+)
By 2023, a second wave of kitchen automation had moved from fry stations to assembly lines. Chipotle began testing its "Autocado" avocado-prep robot (halving, pitting, and peeling avocados: a repetitive prep task) in 2023, alongside the "Hyphen" automated makeline that portions rice, beans, and proteins into bowls based on digital order input. Sweetgreen, which had acquired Boston robotic-kitchen startup Spyce in 2021, opened its "Infinite Kitchen" format in 2023: a robotic assembly system that produces salads from pre-cut ingredients. These systems address a fundamentally different problem from Flippy: not a single fry station but the assembly-line portion of a high-volume fast-casual operation. They work at single-menu-concept locations with standardized recipes; they cannot adapt to the daily specials, the 86'd item, or the expeditor's judgment call. The full-service line cook's job (cooking proteins to temperature, building sauces, calling expo, managing the rhythm of a sixty-seat dining room) remains outside their scope.
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In other countries
The latest figure each country's statistics agency publishes for this job. Each uses its own occupation definition, survey basis and currency, so the numbers are not directly comparable with each other or with the US figures.
United Kingdom (UK SOC 5434)
- Employment, 2025
- 191,000, ONS ASHE 2025 Official statistic Report an errorONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14): employee jobs in Chefs and cooks, United Kingdom, 2025, taken as the sum of the cited cells for SOC 5434 + 5435 (ASHE "number of jobs", thousands x1000; excludes self-employment). Open Government Licence v3.0.
- Median pay, 2025
- £26,531, ONS ASHE 2025 Official statistic Report an errorONS Annual Survey of Hours and Earnings (Table 14.7a): median gross annual pay for the dominant constituent group, SOC 5434, within the combined Chefs and cooks (SOC 5434 + 5435), United Kingdom, 2025. Wages are the cited median of the largest constituent group, not a blend. Open Government Licence v3.0.
Australia (ANZSCO 3514)
- Employment, 2025
- 31,600, ABS Labour Force Survey Official statistic Report an errorABS Labour Force Survey (Detailed), table EQ08: employed persons in ANZSCO 3514 Cooks, national (summed across sex and state/territory), annual average of 4 quarterly estimates.
- Median pay, 2025
- A$74,464, ABS Employee Earnings May 2025 Official statistic Report an errorAnnualised (x52) from A$1,432 median weekly earnings. ABS Survey of Employee Earnings and Hours, May 2025: median pay for full-time non-managerial employees paid at the adult rate, before tax. Surfaced via the Jobs and Skills Australia occupation profile.
View all 28 years of cited US data, each linked to its source
| Year | US employment | Annual pay (median unless marked) | Source | Report |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1900 | 200,000 | n/a | Est., IPUMS USA Researched context | Report |
| 1948 | 400,000 | n/a | Est., McDonald's Corporate Researched context | Report |
| 1950 | n/a | $2,400 | Est., RetroWow Researched context | Report |
| 1980 | n/a | $9,200 | Est., Univ. of Missouri Libraries Researched context | Report |
| 2000 | 642,060 | n/a | BLS OEWS 2000 Official statistic | Report |
| 2003 | 734,870 | $19,260 | BLS OEWS May 2003 Official statistic | Report |
| 2004 | 765,670 | $19,520 | BLS OEWS May 2004 Official statistic | Report |
| 2005 | 791,450 | $19,840 | BLS OEWS May 2005 Official statistic | Report |
| 2006 | 825,840 | $20,340 | BLS OEWS May 2006 Official statistic | Report |
| 2007 | 878,990 | $21,220 | BLS OEWS May 2007 Official statistic | Report |
| 2008 | 899,620 | $21,990 | BLS OEWS May 2008 Official statistic | Report |
| 2009 | 898,820 | $22,170 | BLS OEWS May 2009 Official statistic | Report |
| 2010 | 901,310 | $22,140 | BLS OEWS May 2010 Official statistic | Report |
| 2011 | 947,060 | $22,080 | BLS OEWS May 2011 Official statistic | Report |
| 2012 | 1,000,710 | $22,030 | BLS OEWS May 2012 Official statistic | Report |
| 2013 | 1,057,550 | $22,160 | BLS OEWS May 2013 Official statistic | Report |
| 2014 | 1,104,790 | $22,490 | BLS OEWS May 2014 Official statistic | Report |
| 2015 | 1,150,760 | $23,100 | BLS OEWS May 2015 Official statistic | Report |
| 2016 | 1,217,370 | $24,140 | BLS OEWS May 2016 Official statistic | Report |
| 2017 | 1,276,510 | $25,180 | BLS OEWS May 2017 Official statistic | Report |
| 2018 | 1,340,810 | $26,530 | BLS OEWS May 2018 Official statistic | Report |
| 2019 | 1,401,890 | $27,790 | BLS OEWS May 2019 Official statistic | Report |
| 2020 | 1,109,650 | $28,800 | BLS OEWS May 2020 Official statistic | Report |
| 2021 | 1,193,860 | $30,010 | BLS OEWS May 2021 Official statistic | Report |
| 2022 | 1,321,480 | $34,110 | BLS OEWS May 2022 Official statistic | Report |
| 2023 | 1,412,350 | $35,780 | BLS OEWS May 2023 Official statistic | Report |
| 2024 | 1,452,130 | $36,830 | BLS OEWS May 2024 Official statistic | Report |
| 2025 | 1,409,890 | $37,390 | BLS OEWS May 2025 Official statistic | Report |
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